Definition

• “Pneumonia”: defined as a an alveolar filling process on an imaging study (chest x-ray or chest CT)

---

Etiology

Infection

Viral

• Adenovirus (see Adenovirus, [[Adenovirus]])
• Cytomegalovirus (CMV)(see Cytomegalovirus, [[Cytomegalovirus]])
• Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) (see Epstein-Barr Virus, [[Epstein-Barr Virus]])
• Hantavirus (see Hantavirus, [[Hantavirus]])
• Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) (see Herpes Simplex Virus, [[Herpes Simplex Virus]])
• Influenza Virus (see Influenza Virus, [[Influenza Virus]])
• Measles Virus (see Measles Virus, [[Measles Virus]])
• Metapneumovirus (see Metapneumovirus, [[Metapneumovirus]])
• Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) (see Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, [[Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus]])
• Parainfluenza Virus (see Parainfluenza Virus, [[Parainfluenza Virus]])
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) (see Respiratory Syncytial Virus, [[Respiratory Syncytial Virus]])
• Rhinovirus (see Rhinovirus, [[Rhinovirus]]): case reports of pneumonia in children/adults (although evidence is uncertain)
• Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus (SARS-CoV) (see Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, [[Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus]])
• Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) (see Varicella-Zoster Virus, [[Varicella-Zoster Virus]])

Bacterial (see also Community-Acquired Pneumonia, [[Community-Acquired Pneumonia]] and Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia, [[Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia]])

• Acinetobacter (see Acinetobacter, [[Acinetobacter]])
• Actinomycosis (see Actinomycosis, [[Actinomycosis]])
  • Etiology: Actinomyces
• Brucellosis (see Brucellosis, [[Brucellosis]])
• Chlamydophila Pneumoniae (see Chlamydophila Pneumoniae, [[Chlamydophila Pneumoniae]])
• Citrobacter (see Citrobacter, [[Citrobacter]]): usually hospital-acquired
• Corynebacterium Amycolatum (see Corynebacterium Amycolatum, [[Corynebacterium Amycolatum]])
• Corynebacterium Pseudodiphtheriticum (see Corynebacterium Pseudodiphtheriticum, [[Corynebacterium Pseudodiphtheriticum]])
• Diphtheria (see Diphtheria, [[Diphtheria]])
  • Clostridium Diphtheriae
• Escherichia Coli (see Escherichia Coli, [[Escherichia Coli]])
• Enterobacter (see Enterobacter, [[Enterobacter]])
• Haemophilus Influenzae (see Haemophilus Influenzae, [[Haemophilus Influenzae]])
• Inhalational Anthrax (see Anthrax, [[Anthrax]])
  • Etiology: Bacillus Anthracis
• Klebsiella Pneumoniae (see Klebsiella Pneumoniae, [[Klebsiella Pneumoniae]])
• Legionellosis (see Legionellosis, [[Legionellosis]])
  • Etiology: Legionella
• Lemierre’s Syndrome (see Lemierres Syndrome, [[Lemierres Syndrome]])
• Listeriosis (see Listeriosis, [[Listeriosis]])
• Melioidosis (see Melioidosis, [[Melioidosis]])
  • Etiology: Burkholderia Pseudomallei
• Moraxella Catarrhalis (see Moraxella Catarrhalis, [[Moraxella Catarrhalis]])
• Mycobacterium Avium Complex (MAC) (see Mycobacterium Avium Complex, [[Mycobacterium Avium Complex]])
• Mycobacterium Kansasii (see Mycobacterium Kansasii, [[Mycobacterium Kansasii]])
• Mycoplasma Pneumoniae (see Mycoplasma Pneumoniae, [[Mycoplasma Pneumoniae]])
• Nocardiosis (see Nocardiosis, [[Nocardiosis]])
  • Etiology: Nocardia
• Pertussis (see Pertussis, [[Pertussis]])
  • Etiology: Bordetella Pertussis
• Plague (see Plague, [[Plague]])
  • Etiology: Yersinia Pestis
• Post-Obstructive Pneumonia (see Post-Obstructive Pneumonia, [[Post-Obstructive Pneumonia]])
• Pseudomonas (see Pseudomonas, [[Pseudomonas]])
• Psittacosis (see Psittacosis, [[Psittacosis]])
  • Etiology: Chlamydophila Psittaci
• Q Fever (see Q Fever, [[Q Fever]])
  • Etiology: Coxiella Burnetti
• Rhodococcus Equi (see Rhodococcus Equi, [[Rhodococcus Equi]])
• Septic Embolism (see Septic Embolism, [[Septic Embolism]])
• Serratia Marcescens (see Serratia Marcescens, [[Serratia Marcescens]])
• Staphylococcus Aureus (see Staphylococcus Aureus, [[Staphylococcus Aureus]])
• Streptococcus Pyogenes (see Streptococcus Pyogenes, [[Streptococcus Pyogenes]])
• Streptococcus Pneumoniae (Pneumococcus) (see Streptococcus Pneumoniae, [[Streptococcus Pneumoniae]])
• Stenotrophomonas Maltophilia (see Stenotrophomonas Maltophilia, [[Stenotrophomonas Maltophilia]])
• Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis, [[Tuberculosis]])
  • Etiology: Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
• Tularemia (see Tularemia, [[Tularemia]])
  • Etiology: Francisella Tularensis

Fungal

• Blastomycosis (see Blastomycosis, [[Blastomycosis]])
  • Etiology: Blastomyces
• Candida/Bronchopulmonary Candidiasis (see Candida, [[Candida]])
  • Etiology: Candida
• Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis (see Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis, [[Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis]])
  • Etiology: Aspergillus
• Coccidioidomycosis (see Coccidioidomycosis, [[Coccidioidomycosis]])
  • Etiology: Coccidioides Immitis
• Cryptococcosis (see Cryptococcosis, [[Cryptococcosis]])
  • Etiology: Cryptococcus
• Histoplasmosis (see Histoplasmosis, [[Histoplasmosis]])
  • Etiology: Histoplasma
• Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis (see Invasive Aspergillosis, [[Invasive Aspergillosis]])
  • Etiology: Aspergillus
• Mucoid Impaction (see Mucoid Impaction, [[Mucoid Impaction]])
• Mucormycosis (see Mucormycosis, [[Mucormycosis]])
  • Etiology: Mucor
• Pneumocystis Jirovecii (see Pneumocystis Jirovecii, [[Pneumocystis Jirovecii]])
• Scedosporiosis (see Scedosporiosis, [[Scedosporiosis]])
  • Etiology: Scedosporium

Parasitic

• Echinococcosis (see Echinococcosis, [[Echinococcosis]])
  • Etiology:
• Paragonimiasis (see Paragonimiasis, [[Paragonimiasis]])
  • Etiology:
• Strongyloidiasis (see Strongyloidiasis, [[Strongyloidiasis]])
  • Etiology:

Aspiration

• Aspiration Pneumonia (see Aspiration Pneumonia, [[Aspiration Pneumonia]])
• Barium Aspiration (see Barium, [[Barium]])
• Gastrograffin Aspiration (see Gastrograffin, [[Gastrograffin]])
• Near Drowning (see Near Drowning, [[Near Drowning]])
• Hydrocarbon Aspiration Pneumonitis (see Hydrocarbons, [[Hydrocarbons]])
• Talcum Powder Aspiration (see Talc, [[Talc]])

Neoplasm

• Bronchioloalveolar Cell Carcinoma (see Bronchioloalveolar Cell Carcinoma, [[Bronchioloalveolar Cell Carcinoma]])
• Bronchioloalveolar Metastases (see Lung Metastases-Bronchioloalveolar, [[Lung Metastases-Bronchioloalveolar]])
• Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis (see Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis, [[Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis]])
• Leukostasis (see Leukostasis, [[Leukostasis]])
• Leukemic Infiltration (see Leukemic Infiltration, [[Leukemic Infiltration]])
• Engraftment Syndrome (see Engraftment Syndrome, [[Engraftment Syndrome]])

Connective Tissue Disease

• Adult-Onset Still’s Disease (see Adult-Onset Still’s Disease, [[Adult-Onset Stills Disease]]): pulmonary infiltrates occur in 30-40% of cases
• Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD) (see Mixed Connective Tissue Disease, [[Mixed Connective Tissue Disease]])
• Polydermatomyositis (see Polydermatomyositis, [[Polydermatomyositis]])
• Relapsing Polychondritis (see Relapsing Polychondritis, [[Relapsing Polychondritis]])
• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)(see Rheumatoid Arthritis, [[Rheumatoid Arthritis]])
• Scleroderma (see Scleroderma, [[Scleroderma]])
• Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) (see Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, [[Systemic Lupus Erythematosus]])

Lung Transplant-Associated (see Lung Transplant, [[Lung Transplant]])

• Primary Lung Graft Dysfunction (Ischemia-Reperfusion Lung Injury, Early Graft Dysfunction, Pulmonary Reimplantation Response, Pulmonary Reimplantation Pulmonary Edema) (see Primary Lung Graft Dysfunction, [[Primary Lung Graft Dysfunction]])
  • Epidemiology: xxxx
• Hyperacute Lung Transplant Rejection (see Hyperacute Lung Transplant Rejection, [[Hyperacute Lung Transplant Rejection]])
  • Epidemiology: xxxx
• Acute Antibody-Mediated Lung Transplant Rejection (see Acute Antibody-Mediated Lung Transplant Rejection, [[Acute Antibody-Mediated Lung Transplant Rejection]])
  • Epidemiology: xxxx
• Acute Lung Transplant Rejection (see Acute Lung Transplant Rejection, [[Acute Lung Transplant Rejection]])
  • Epidemiology: xxxx
• Chronic Lung Transplant Rejection (see Chronic Lung Transplant Rejection, [[Chronic Lung Transplant Rejection]])
  • Epidemiology: xxxx

Trauma (see Trauma, [[Trauma]])

• Burns (see Burns, [[Burns]])
• Blast Injury: due to explosion or lightning
• Blunt Thoracic Trauma (see Blunt Thoracic Trauma, [[Blunt Thoracic Trauma]])
  • Pulmonary Contusion (see Pulmonary Contusion, [[Pulmonary Contusion]])
• Fat Embolism (see Fat Embolism, [[Fat Embolism]])

Mechanical Pulmonary Edema (see Mechanical Pulmonary Edema, [[Mechanical Pulmonary Edema]])

• Upper Airway Obstruction (see Obstructive Lung Disease, [[Obstructive Lung Disease]])
• Overdistention Pulmonary Edema
• Post-Pneumonectomy Pulmonary Edema
• Re-Expansion Pulmonary Edema

Hemodynamic Disturbance

• Anaphylaxis (see Anaphylaxis, [[Anaphylaxis]])
• Cardiogenic Shock (see Cardiogenic Shock, [[Cardiogenic Shock]])
• Hemorrhagic Shock (see Hemorrhagic Shock, [[Hemorrhagic Shock]])
• Hypovolemic Shock (see Hypovolemic Shock, [[Hypovolemic Shock]])
• Neurogenic Shock (see Neurogenic Shock, [[Neurogenic Shock]])
• Shock of Any Other Etiology

Hematologic Disorder

• Acute Granulocytic Febrile Transfusion Reaction (see Acute Granulocytic Febrile Transfusion Reaction, [[Acute Granulocytic Febrile Transfusion Reaction]])
• Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction (see Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction, [[Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction]])
• Cardiopulmonary Bypass (see Cardiopulmonary Bypass, [[Cardiopulmonary Bypass]])
• Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) (see Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation, [[Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation]])
• Rh Incompatibility (see Rh Incompatibility, [[Rh Incompatibility]])
• Sickle Cell Disease Acute Chest Syndrome (see Sickle Cell Disease, [[Sickle Cell Disease]])
• Sickle Cell Disease Acute Chest Syndrome of Pregnancy (see Sickle Cell Disease, [[Sickle Cell Disease]])
• Transfusion-Associated Acute Lung Injury (TRALI) (see Transfusion-Associated Acute Lung Injury, [[Transfusion-Associated Acute Lung Injury]])

Neurogenic Pulmonary Edema (see Neurogenic Pulmonary Edema, [[Neurogenic Pulmonary Edema]])

• Head Trauma
• Grand Mal Seizure (see Seizures, [[Seizures]])
• Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH) (see Subarachnoid Hemorrhage, [[Subarachnoid Hemorrhage]])
• Intracerebral Hemorrhage (see Intracerebral Hemorrhage, [[Intracerebral Hemorrhage]])

Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia (see Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia, [[Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia]])

Eosinophilic Pulmonary Syndromes of Known Etiology

Parasitic Infection

• General Comments: parasite-associated eosinophilic pneumonias represent the most common etiologies of pulmonary infiltrates with eosinophilia worldwide
• Capillaria Aerophila (see Capillariasis, [[Capillariasis]])
  • Epidemiology: rare etiology of eosinophilic pulmonary infiltrates
• Clonorchis Sinensis (see Clonorchiasis, [[Clonorchiasis]])
  • Epidemiology: rare etiology of eosinophilic pulmonary infiltrates
• Dirofilariasis (see Dirofilariasis, [[Dirofilariasis]])
  • Clinical: eosinophilic pulmonary infiltrates
• Echinococcosis (see Echinococcosis, [[Echinococcosis]])
• Paragonimiasis (see Paragonimiasis, [[Paragonimiasis]])
  • Epidemiology: rare etiology of eosinophilic pulmonary infiltrates
• Schistosomiasis (see Schistosomiasis, [[Schistosomiasis]]): the manifestations of schistosomiasis in the lung vary dependent on the stage of disease
  • Early Acute Schistosomiasis: transient, multiple small pulmonary nodules with peripheral eosinophilia
  • Chronic Schistosomiasis: embolization of ova in small arteries of the lung results in granuloma formation, occlusion and remodeling of pulmonary arteries, and further pulmonary hypertension mediared by portopulmonary hypertension
  • Post-Treatment of Schistosomiasis: eosinophilic pneumonitis (lung shift, verminous pneumonia, reactionary Loffler-like pneumonitis) due to antigen release following treatment
• Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Loffler Syndrome) (see Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia, [[Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia]])
  • Ascaris Lumbricoides (or Ascaris Suum): most common etiology of simple pulmonary eosinophilia (Loffler syndrome)
  • Necator Americanus
  • Ancylostoma Duodenale
  • Ancylostoma Brazliense or Canium
  • Entamoeba Histolytica
  • Fasciola Hepatica
  • Schistosomiasis (see Schistosomiasis, [[Schistosomiasis]]): the manifestations of schistosomiasis in the lung vary dependent on the stage of disease
    • Early Acute Schistosomiasis: transient, multiple small pulmonary nodules with peripheral eosinophilia
    • Chronic Schistosomiasis: embolization of ova in small arteries of the lung results in granuloma formation, occlusion and remodeling of pulmonary arteries, and further pulmonary hypertension mediared by portopulmonary hypertension
    • Post-Treatment of Schistosomiasis: eosinophilic pneumonitis (lung shift, verminous pneumonia, reactionary Loffler-like pneumonitis) due to antigen release following treatment
  • Strongyloides Stercoralis: simple pulmonary eosinophilia (Loffler syndrome) may occur when larvae migrate through the lungs after acute infection
• Strongyloides Stercoralis Hyperinfection Syndrome (see Strongyloides Stercoralis, [[Strongyloides Stercoralis]])
  • Epidemiology: occurs in 20% of patients hospitalized with strongyloidiasis and coexisting chronic lung disease (COPD, asthma)
  • Diagnosis: rhabditiform larvae may be recovered via bronchoalveolar lavage, bronchial wash, or sputum sample
  • Clinical: cough/wheezing/dyspnea with bilateral patchy infiltrates and variable degree of eosinophilia
• Trichinosis (see Trichinosis, [[Trichinosis]])
  • Epidemiology: rare etiology of eosinophilic pulmonary infiltrates
• Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Occult Filariasis) (see Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia, [[Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia]])
  • Wuchereria Bancrofti
  • Brugia Malayi
  • Brugia Timori
• Visceral Larva Migrans (see Visceral Larva Migrans, [[Visceral Larva Migrans]])
  • Toxocara Canis

Other Infection

• Aspergillus Niger (see Aspergillus, [[Aspergillus]])
  • Epidemiology: case reports of eosinophilic pneumonia
• Bipolaris Australiensis
  • Epidemiology: case reports of eosinophilic pneumonia
• Bipolaris Spicera
  • Epidemiology: case reports of eosinophilic pneumonia
• Brucellosis (see Brucellosis, [[Brucellosis]])
  • Epidemiology: case reports of eosinophilic pneumonia [Eosinophilia and pneumonitis in chronic brucellosis: a report of two cases. Ann Intern Med. 1942;16:995-1001]
• Coccidioidomycosis (see Coccidioidomycosis, [[Coccidioidomycosis]])
  • Clinical: pronounced peripheral eosinophilia may be an early indicator of dissemination
• Cryptococcosis (see Cryptococcosis, [[Cryptococcosis]])
  • Epidemiology: case reports of eosinophilic pneumonia (South Med J, 1995) [MEDLINE]
• Histoplasmosis (see Histoplasmosis, [[Histoplasmosis]])
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (see Human Immunodeficiency Virus, [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]])
• Influenza Virus (see Influenza Virus, [[Influenza Virus]])
  • Epidemiology: may produce eosinophilic pneumonia in some cases
• Mycobacterium Simiae (see Mycobacterium Simiae, [[Mycobacterium Simiae]])
  • Epidemiology: case reports of eosinophilic pneumonia (NEJM, 1989) [MEDLINE]
• Pneumocystis Jirovecii (see Pneumocystis Jirovecii, [[Pneumocystis Jirovecii]])
  • Epidemiology: BAL eosinophilia has been reported in HIV-associated cases
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) (see Respiratory Syncytial Virus, [[Respiratory Syncytial Virus]])
  • Epidemiology: may produce eosinophilic pneumonia in some cases
• Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis, [[Tuberculosis]])
  • Epidemiology: may produce eosinophilic pneumonia in some cases

Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis and Related Syndromes

• Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA) (see Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis, [[Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis]])
• Allergic Bronchopulmonary Candidiasis (see Candida, [[Candida]])
• Bronchocentric Granulomatosis (BCG) (see Bronchocentric Granulomatosis, [[Bronchocentric Granulomatosis]])

Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia (see Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia, [[Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia]])

• More Than 80 Drugs/Toxins Have Been Reported to Cause Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia

Other

• Breast Radiation-Associated Eosinophilic Pneumonia (see Radiation Therapy, [[Radiation Therapy]])
  • Clinical: chronic eosinophilic pneumonia
• Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome (see Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome, [[Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome]])
  • Physiology: due to contaminated L-tryptophan (see L-Tryptophan, [[L-Tryptophan]])
• Toxic Rapeseed Oil Syndrome (see Contaminated Rapeseed Oil, [[Contaminated Rapeseed Oil]])
  • Physiology: due to contaminated rapeseed oil

Eosinophilic Pulmonary Syndromes of Unknown Etiology

• Churg-Strauss Syndrome (Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis) (see Churg-Strauss Syndrome, [[Churg-Strauss Syndrome]])
• Hypereosinophilic Syndrome (see Hypereosinophilic Syndrome, [[Hypereosinophilic Syndrome]])
• Idiopathic Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia (IAEP) (see Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia, [[Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia]])
• Idiopathic Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia (ICEP) (see Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia, [[Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia]])
• Idiopathic Hypereosinophilic Obliterative Bronchiolitis (see Idiopathic Hypereosinophilic Obliterative Bronchiolitis, [[Idiopathic Hypereosinophilic Obliterative Bronchiolitis]])

Other Pulmonary Disorders with Possible Associated Pulmonary Eosinophilia

• Asthma (see Asthma, [[Asthma]])
• Eosinophilic Bronchitis (see Eosinophilic Bronchitis, [[Eosinophilic Bronchitis]])
  • Clinical: chronic cough with sputum eosinophilia (about 40%)
    • Normal Lung Function with Absence of Bronchial Hyperreactivity: although it may evolve over time into either fixed airflow obstruction without asthma or into true asthma
    • Absence of Eosinophilic Pneumonia
• Gastric Cancer with Tumor-Related Production of GM-CSF and IL-5 (see Gastric Cancer, [[Gastric Cancer]])
  • Epidemiology: case report
• Hodgkin’s Disease (see Hodgkins Disease, [[Hodgkins Disease]])
  • Epidemiology: xxxx
• Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias
  • Desquamative Interstitial Pneumonia (DIP): mild BAL eosinophilia may occur in some cases
  • Non-Specific Interstitial Pneumonia (NSIP): mild BAL eosinophilia may occur in some cases
• Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) (see Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis, [[Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis]]): mild BAL eosinophilia may occur in some cases
• Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (LCH) (see Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis, [[Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis]])
  • Diagnosis: pulmonary pathologic lesions are nodules (with bronchiolocentric stellate shape) with Langerhans cells and variable numbers of eosinophils, plasma cells, and lymphocytes
    • Eosinophils are Usually Present in the Initial, Active Stage of the Disease: they contribute to the eosinophilic granuloma
    • Eosinophils are Numerous in 25% of Cases: usually located at the periphery of the lesions
    • Eosinophils are Rare or Absent at the Chronic Stage of the Disease
• Lung Transplant (see Lung Transplant, [[Lung Transplant]])
  • Acute Lung Transplant Rejection (Acute Cellular Lung Transplant Rejection) (see Acute Lung Transplant Rejection, [[Acute Lung Transplant Rejection]]): peripheral eosinophilia may occur with/without pulmonary infiltrates (as acute rejection may be detected by surveillance bronchoscopy with transbronchial biopsy prior to the development of pulmonary infiltrates)
• Organizing Pneumonia (see Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia, [[Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia]])
  • Diagnosis: mild BAL eosinophilia may occur in some cases (usually <20%)
• Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis, [[Sarcoidosis]])
  • Diagnosis: peripheral eosinophilia (and tissue eosinophilia) may be present, but are usually mild

Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia (COP)

• See Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia, [[Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia]]

Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis (HP)

• See Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis, [[Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis]]

Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage (DAH)

• See Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage, [[Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage]])

Drug

• 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) (see 5-Fluorouracil, [[5-Fluorouracil]])
• All-Trans Retinoic Acid (ATRA) (see All-Trans Retinoic Acid, [[All-Trans Retinoic Acid]])
• Aminoglutethimide (Cytadren) (see Aminoglutethimide, [[Aminoglutethimide]])
• Amiodarone (see Amiodarone, [[Amiodarone]])
• Amphotericin (see Amphotericin, [[Amphotericin]])
• Anagrelide (see Anagrelide, [[Anagrelide]])
• Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNFα) Therapy (see Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor-α Therapy, [[Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor-α Therapy]])
• Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) (see Bacillus Calmette-Guerin, [[Bacillus Calmette-Guerin]])
• Barbiturate Intoxication (see Barbiturates, [[Barbiturates]])
• Bleomycin (see Bleomycin, [[Bleomycin]])
• Bortezomib (Velcade) (see Bortezomib, [[Bortezomib]])
• Busulfan (see Busulfan, [[Busulfan]])
• Carbamazepine (see Carbamazepine, [[Carbamazepine]])
• Chlorambucil (see Chlorambucil, [[Chlorambucil]])
• Cetuximab (see Cetuximab, [[Cetuximab]])
• Cocaine (see Cocaine, [[Cocaine]])
• Colchicine (see Colchicine, [[Colchicine]])
• Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) (see Cyclophosphamide, [[Cyclophosphamide]])
• Cytarabine (ARA-C) (see Cytarabine, [[Cytarabine]])
• Cytokine Release Syndrome (see Cytokine Release Syndrome, [[Cytokine Release Syndrome]]): occurs with the administration of specific monoclonal antibodies
  • Alemtuzumab (Campath, MabCampath, Campath-1H, Lemtrada) (see Alemtuzumab, [[Alemtuzumab]])
  • Anti-CD28 Superantigen
  • Anti-Thymocyte Globulin (ATG) (see Anti-Thymocyte Globulin, [[Anti-Thymocyte Globulin]])
  • Basiliximab (Simulect) (see Basiliximab, [[Basiliximab]])
  • Lenalidomide (Revlimid) (see Lenalidomide, [[Lenalidomide]])
  • Muromonab-CD3 (Orthoclone OKT3) (see Muromonab-CD3, [[Muromonab-CD3]])
  • Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin, Oxaliplatin Medac) (see Oxaliplatin, [[Oxaliplatin]])
  • Rituximab (Rituxan) (see Anti-CD20 Therapy, [[Anti-CD20 Therapy]])
• Dextran (see Dextran, [[Dextran]]): when used intrauterine for hysteroscopy
• Docetaxel (see Docetaxel, [[Docetaxel]])
• Ethchlorvynol (see Ethchlorvynol, [[Ethchlorvynol]])
• Etoposide (see Etoposide, [[Etoposide]])
• Flecainide (see Flecainide, [[Flecainide]])
• Fludarabine (see Fludarabine, [[Fludarabine]])
• Gefitinib (Iressa) (see Gefitinib, [[Gefitinib]])
• Gemcitabine (Gemzar) (see Gemcitabine, [[Gemcitabine]])
• Heroin (see Heroin, [[Heroin]])
• Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) (see Hydrochlorothiazide, [[Hydrochlorothiazide]])
• Interleukin-2 (IL-2) (see Interleukin-2, [[Interleukin-2]])
• Interferon Gamma (see Interferon Gamma-1b, [[Interferon Gamma-1b]])
• Leflunomide (Arava) (see Leflunomide, [[Leflunomide]])
• Melphalan (see Melphalan, [[Melphalan]])
• Mercaptopurine (see Mercaptopurine, [[Mercaptopurine]])
• Methadone (see Methadone, [[Methadone]])
• Methotrexate (see Methotrexate, [[Methotrexate]])
• Mitomcyin C (see Mitomycin, [[Mitomycin]])
• Naloxone (see Naloxone, [[Naloxone]])
• Nitrofurantoin (Macrodantin) (see Nitrofurantoin, [[Nitrofurantoin]])
• Nitrosoureas (see Nitrosoureas, [[Nitrosoureas]])
  • Carmustine (see Carmustine, [[Carmustine]]) (BCNU)
  • Chlorozotocin (see Chlorozotocin, [[Chlorozotocin]])
  • Lomustine (see Lomustine, [[Lomustine]]) (CCNU)
  • Streptozotocin (see Streptozotocin, [[Streptozotocin]])
• Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) Intoxication (see Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug, [[Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug]])
• Oxaliplatin (see Oxaliplatin, [[Oxaliplatin]])
• Oxygen Toxicity (see Oxygen, [[Oxygen]])
• Paclitaxel (Taxol) (see Paclitaxel, [[Paclitaxel]])
• Pemetrexed (Alimta) (see Pemetrexed, [[Pemetrexed]])
• Penicillamine (see Penicillamine, [[Penicillamine]])
• Pranlukast (see Pranlukast, [[Pranlukast]])
• Procarbazine (see Procarbazine, [[Procarbazine]])
• Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 (PD-1) Checkpoint Inhibitors (see Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 Checkpoint Inhibitors, [[Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 Checkpoint Inhibitors]])
  • Nivolumab (Opdivo) (see Nivolumab, [[Nivolumab]])
  • Pembrolizumab (Keytruda) (see Pembrolizumab, [[Pembrolizumab]])
• Propoxyphene (Darvon) (see Propoxyphene, [[Propoxyphene]])
• Protamine (see Protamine, [[Protamine]])
• Radiographic Contrast (see Radiographic Contrast, [[Radiographic Contrast]])
• Salicylate Intoxication (see Salicylates, [[Salicylates]])
• Simvastatin (see Simvastatin, [[Simvastatin]])
• Sirolimus (see Sirolimus, [[Sirolimus]])
• Temozolomide (see Temozolomide, [[Temozolomide]])
• Temsirolimus (see Temsirolimus, [[Temsirolimus]])
• Ticlopidine (see Ticlopidine, [[Ticlopidine]])
• Tocolytic-Induced Pulmonary Edema (see Tocolytic-Induced Pulmonary Edema, [[Tocolytic-Induced Pulmonary Edema]])
• Topotecan (Hycamtin) (see Topotecan, [[Topotecan]])
• Vinblastine (see Vinblastine, [[Vinblastine]])

Toxin

• Acetic Acid Inhalation (see Acetic Acid, [[Acetic Acid]])
• Acetic Anhydride Inhalation (see Acetic Anhydride, [[Acetic Anhydride]])
• Acrolein Inhalation (see Acrolein, [[Acrolein]])
• Acute Beryllium Exposure (see Beryllium, [[Beryllium]])
• Amitrole Inhalation (see Amitrole, [[Amitrole]])
• Ammonia Inhalation (see Ammonia, [[Ammonia]])
• Antimony Fume Inhalation (see Antimony, [[Antimony]])
• Berylliosis (see Beryllium, [[Beryllium]])
• Bromine+Methyl Bromide Inhalation (see Bromine+Methyl Bromide, [[Bromine+Methyl Bromide]])
• Cadmium Fume Inhalation (see Cadmium, [[Cadmium]])
• Carbamates (see Carbamates, [[Carbamates]])
• Chlorine Inhalation (see Chlorine, [[Chlorine]])
• Chloropicrin Gas Inhalation (see Chloropicrin Gas, [[Chloropicrin Gas]])
• Chromic Acid Inhalation Chromic Acid, [[Chromic Acid]])
• Contaminated Rapeseed Oil (see Contaminated Rapeseed Oil, [[Contaminated Rapeseed Oil]])
• Cyanide Intoxication (see Cyanide, [[Cyanide]])
• Diazomethane Inhalation (see Diazomethane, [[Diazomethane]])
• Diborane Gas Inhalation (see Diborane Gas, [[Diborane Gas]])
• Dinitrogen Tetroxide (see Dinitrogen Tetroxide, [[Dinitrogen Tetroxide]])
• Ethylene Oxide Gas Inhalation (see Ethylene Oxide Gas, [[Ethylene Oxide Gas]])
• Formic Acid Inhalation (see Formic Acid, [[Formic Acid]])
• Glyphosate Ingestion (see Glyphosate, [[Glyphosate]])
• Heavy Metal Fume Inhalation
  • Cadmium Fume Inhalation (see Cadmium, [[Cadmium]])
  • Mercury Fume Inhalation (see Mercury, [[Mercury]])
  • Nickel Carbonyl Fume Inhalation (see Nickel Carbonyl, [[Nickel Carbonyl]])
  • Vanadium Fume Inhalation (see Vanadium, [[Vanadium]])
• Hydrocarbon Pneumonitis (see Hydrocarbons, [[Hydrocarbons]])
• Hydrofluoric Acid Inhalation (see Hydrofluoric Acid, [[Hydrofluoric Acid]])
• Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Inhalation (see Hydrogen Sulfide Gas, [[Hydrogen Sulfide Gas]])
• Lipoid Pneumonia (see Lipoid Pneumonia, [[Lipoid Pneumonia]])
• Lycoperdonosis (see Lycoperdonosis, [[Lycoperdonosis]])
• Manganese Fume Inhalation (see Manganese, [[Manganese]])
• Methamphetamine Intoxication (see Methamphetamine, [[Methamphetamine]])
• Methyl Isocyanate (see Methyl Isocyanate, [[Methyl Isocyanate]])
• Methyl Isothiocyanate (see Methyl Isothiocyanate, [[Methyl Isothiocyanate]])
• Nitric Acid Inhalation (see Nitric Acid, [[Nitric Acid]])
• Nitrogen Dioxide Gas Inhalation (see Nitrogen Dioxide, [[Nitrogen Dioxide]])
• Nitrogen Mustard Gas Inhalation (see Nitrogen Mustard Gas, [[Nitrogen Mustard Gas]])
• Organophosphates (see Organophosphates, [[Organophosphates]])
• Osmium Tetroxide Inhalation (see Osmium Tetroxide, [[Osmium Tetroxide]])
• Ozone Inhalation (see Ozone, [[Ozone]])
• Paraquat (see Paraquat, [[Paraquat]])
• Phosgene Gas Inhalation (see Phosgene Gas, [[Phosgene Gas]])
• Phosphine Gas Inhalation (see Phosphine Gas, [[Phosphine Gas]])
• Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, Teflon) (see Polytetrafluoroethylene, [[Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE,Teflon)]])
• Smoke Inhalation (see Smoke Inhalation, [[Smoke Inhalation]])
• Sodium Azide Inhalation (see Sodium Azide, [[Sodium Azide]]): following automobile airbag deployment
• Sulfur Dioxide Inhalation (see Sulfur Dioxide, [[Sulfur Dioxide]])
• Sulfuric Acid Inhalation (see Sulfuric Acid, [[Sulfuric Acid]])
• Sulfur Mustard Gas Inhalation (see Sulfur Mustard Gas, [[Sulfur Mustard Gas]])
• Talcum Powder Aspiration (see Talc, [[Talc]])
• Tear Gas (see Tear Gas, [[Tear Gas]])
• Zinc Chloride Gas (Smoke Bomb) (see Zinc Chloride Gas, [[Zinc Chloride Gas]])

Other

• Acute Exacerbation of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (see Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis, [[Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis]])
• Acute Pancreatitis (see Acute Pancreatitis, [[Acute Pancreatitis]])
• Acute Pulmonary Embolism (see Acute Pulmonary Embolism, [[Acute Pulmonary Embolism]])
• Air Embolism (see Air Embolism, [[Air Embolism]])
• Amniotic Fluid Embolism (see Amniotic Fluid Embolism, [[Amniotic Fluid Embolism]])
• Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema (see Congestive Heart Failure, [[Congestive Heart Failure]])
• Cholesterol Emboli Syndrome (see Cholesterol Emboli Syndrome, [[Cholesterol Emboli Syndrome]])
• Decompression Sickness (see Decompression Sickness, [[Decompression Sickness]])
• Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (see Diabetic Ketoacidosis, [[Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State]])
• Esophageal Variceal Sclerotherapy (see Esophageal Varices, [[Esophageal Varices]]): ARDS occurs in <1% of cases
• High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) (see High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema, [[High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema]])
• Lymphangiogram Oil Droplet Embolism (see Lymphangiogram Oil Droplet Embolism, [[Lymphangiogram Oil Droplet Embolism]])
• Metastatic Calcification (see Metastatic Calcification, [[Metastatic Calcification]])
• Middle Lobe Syndrome (see Middle Lobe Syndrome, [[Middle Lobe Syndrome]])
• Mounier-Kuhn Syndrome (see Mounier-Kuhn Syndrome, [[Mounier-Kuhn Syndrome]])
• Pre-Eclampsia/Eclampsia (see Pre-Eclamspia, Eclampsia, [[Pre-Eclampsia, Eclampsia]])
• Pulmonary Alveolar Microlithiasis (see Pulmonary Alveolar Microlithiasis, [[Pulmonary Alveolar Microlithiasis]])
• Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis (PAP) (see Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis, [[Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis]])
• Radiation Pneumonitis (see Radiation Pneumonitis and Fibrosis, [[Radiation Pneumonitis and Fibrosis]])
• Rattlesnake Bite (see Rattlesnake Bite, [[Rattlesnake Bite]])
• Reperfusion Lung Injury (see Reperfusion Lung Injury, [[Reperfusion Lung Injury]])
• Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis, [[Sarcoidosis]])
• Torsion of Lung (see Torsion of Lung, [[Torsion of Lung]])
• Tumor Embolism (see Tumor Embolism, [[Tumor Embolism]])
• Williams-Campbell Syndrome (see Williams-Campbell Syndrome, [[Williams-Campbell Syndrome]])

---

References

General

• Preferences for home vs hospital care among low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156:1565–71 [MEDLINE]
• A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jan 23;336(4):243-50 [MEDLINE]
• The cost of treating community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Ther. 1998 Jul-Aug;20(4):820-37 [MEDLINE]
• Risk factors for venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients with acute medical illness: anal- ysis of the MEDENOX Study. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164:963–8 [MEDLINE]
• Validation of predictive rules and indices of severity for community acquired pneumonia. Thorax 2004; 59:421–7 [MEDLINE]
• Risk factors of treatment failure in community acquired pneumonia: implications for disease outcome. Thorax 2004;59:960-965 [MEDLINE]
• Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society Consensus Guidelines on the Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72 [MEDLINE]
• CDC EPIC Study. Community-Acquired Pneumonia Requiring Hospitalization among U.S. Adults. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 30;373(5):415-27. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1500245. Epub 2015 Jul 14 [MEDLINE]
• Management of Adults With Hospital-acquired and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. 2016 Sep 1;63(5):e61-e111. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw353. Epub 2016 Jul 14 [MEDLINE]

Prevention

• Facilitating influenza and pneumococcal vaccination through standing orders programs. JAMA 2003; 289:1238 [MEDLINE]

General Treatment

• The cost of treating community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Ther 1998; 20: 820–37 [MEDLINE]

Antibiotics

• Variations in etiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia across four treatment sites: implications for antimicrobial prescribing practices. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160(2):608-613 [MEDLINE]
• PneumA Trial. Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;290(19):2588-2598 [MEDLINE]
• Timing of antibiotic administration and outcomes for Medicare patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164:637–44 [MEDLINE]
• De-escalation in lower respiratory tract infections. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2006;12(5):364-368 [MEDLINE]
• De-escalation therapy in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2006;12(5):452-457 [MEDLINE]
• Clinical characteristics and treatment patterns among patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 2006; 129:1210–1218 [MEDLINE]
• Antibiotic stewardship: overcoming implementation barriers. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2011;24(4): 357-362 [MEDLINE]
• Antimicrobial stewardship programs: mandatory for all ICUs. Crit Care. 2012;16:179. doi:10.1186/cc11853 [MEDLINE]
• Impact of regular collaboration between infectious diseases and critical care practitioners on antimicrobial utilization and patient outcome. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:2099–2107. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31828e9863 [MEDLINE]
• Efficacy of single-dose antibiotic against early-onset pneumonia in comatose patients who are ventilated. Chest. 2013 May;143(5):1219-25. doi: 10.1378/chest.12-1361 [MEDLINE]
• Antibiotic stewardship in hospital-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2013;143:1195–1196. doi:10.1378/chest.12-2729 [MEDLINE]
• Association of azithromycin with mortality and cardiovascular events among older patients hospitalized with pneumonia. JAMA. 2014 Jun 4;311(21):2199-208. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.4304 [MEDLINE]
• What can be expected from antimicrobial de-escalation in the critically ill? Intensive Care Med 2014; 40:92–5 [MEDLINE]
• CAP-START Trial. Antibiotic treatment strategies for community-acquired pneumonia in adults. N Engl J Med. 2015 Apr 2;372(14):1312-23. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1406330 [MEDLINE]
• A Systematic Review of the Definitions, Determinants, and Clinical Outcomes of Antimicrobial De-escalation in the Intensive Care Unit. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Apr 15;62(8):1009-17. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ1199. Epub 2015 Dec 23 [MEDLINE]
• Duration of Antibiotic Treatment in Community-Acquired Pneumonia
  A Multicenter Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2016 Jul 25. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.3633 [MEDLINE]

Corticosteroids

• Adjuvant steroid therapy in community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hosp Med. 2013 Feb;8(2):68-75 [MEDLINE]

Respiratory Support

• Acute respiratory failure in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia. A prospective randomized evaluation of noninvasive ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Nov;160(5 Pt 1):1585-91 [MEDLINE]
• Non-invasive mechanical ventilation in acute respiratory failure due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: correlates for success. Thorax. 1995 Jul;50(7):755-7 [MEDLINE]
• Predictors of failure of noninvasive ventilation in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia. J Crit Care. 2010 Sep;25(3):540.e9-14. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2010.02.012 [MEDLINE]
• The role of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in community-acquired pneumonia. J Crit Care. 2015 Feb;30(1):49-54. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.09.021. Epub 2014 Oct 2 [MEDLINE]

Prognosis

• Readmission following hospitalization for pneumonia: the impact of pneumonia type and its implication for hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 2013 Aug;57(3):362-7 [MEDLINE]
  • Editorial commentary: “excess readmissions” for pneumonia: a dilemma with a penalty. Clin Infect Dis. 2013 Aug;57(3):368-9 [MEDLINE]