Endotracheal Intubation

Indications for Endotracheal Intubation and Invasive Mechanical Ventilation (see Airway Management and Invasive Mechanical Ventilation)

Inability to Maintain Airway Patency and/or Reflexes

Upper Airway Obstruction

Altered Mental Status (see Obtundation-Coma)
- Intoxication
  - Central Nervous System Depressants (Such as Ethanol, Benzodiazepines, etc)
- Procedural Deep Sedation (with/without Pharmacologic Paralysis) (see Sedation)
  - Bronchoscopy (see Bronchoscopy)
  - Cerebral Angiogram (see Cerebral Angiogram)
  - Coronary Angiogram (see Cardiac Catheterization)
  - Colonoscopy (see Colonoscopy)
  - Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) (see Esophagogastroduodenoscopy)
  - Other Procedures Which Require Prolonged Immobility
- Procedural General Anesthesia (with/without Pharmacologic Paralysis) (see General Anesthesia)
  - Surgery
Bilateral Vocal Fold Immobility (BVFI) (see Bilateral Vocal Fold Immobility)
- Example: Bilateral Vocal Cord Paralysis (see Vocal Cord Paralysis)
- Example: Laryngospasm (see Laryngospasm)
Other Etiologies of Upper Airway Obstruction
- Example: Anaphylaxis (see Anaphylaxis)
- Example: Angioedema (see Angioedema)

Lower Airway Obstruction

Airway Mucous Plugging with Inability to Clear Secretions
Massive Hemoptysis (see Hemoptysis)

Respiratory Failure (see Respiratory Failure)

Type I Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure

Acute or Chronic Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure
- Decreased Mixed Venous Oxygen Saturation (Decreased Mixed Venous pO2)
- Intrapulmonary Right-to-Left Shunt (see Intracardiac and Extracardiac Shunt)
- Intracardiac Right-to-Left Shunt (see Intracardiac and Extracardiac Shunt)
- Worsened V/Q Mismatch (Above Levels Observed as Part of Normal Physiology)
- Diffusion Limitation

Type II Hypoxemic, Hypercapnic Respiratory Failure

Acute Hypoxemic, Hypercapnic Respiratory Failure (Acute Hypoventilation, Acute Ventilatory Failure)
- Decreased Ventilatory Drive
- Decreased Ventilatory Output Due to Neuromuscular Disease
- Decreased Ventilatory Output Due to Excessive Ventilatory Demand
Chronic Hypoxemic, Hypercapnic Respiratory Failure (Chronic Hypoventilation, Chronic Ventilatory Failure)
- Decreased Ventilatory Drive
- Decreased Ventilatory Output Due to Neuromuscular Disease
- Decreased Ventilatory Output Due to Excessive Ventilatory Demand

Technique

Airway Management

See Airway Management

Adverse Effects/Complications of Endotracheal Intubation and Invasive Mechanical Ventilation (see Airway Management and Adverse Effects and Complications of Endotracheal Intubation and Invasive Mechanical Ventilation)

General Comments

Medical Malpractice Related to Adverse Events/Complications of Airway Management and Endotracheal Intubation
- Inadequate Ventilation, Esophageal Intubation, and Difficult Endotracheal Intubation are the Most Common Mechanisms of Respiratory Adverse Events/Complications Associated with Endotracheal Intubation/Mechanical Ventilation by Anesthesiologists (Anesthesiology, 1991) [MEDLINE]
Risk Factors for Adverse Events/Complications of Airway Management and Endotracheal Intubation
- Performance of ≥3 Intubation Attempts was Associated with a Significantly Increased Rate of Adverse Events (35% vs 9%) in the Emergency Department (Ann Emerg Med, 2012) [MEDLINE]
- Patients Requiring 1 Intubation Attempts Had a 14.2% Adverse Event Rate, Patients Requiring 2 Intubation Attempts Had a 47.2% Adverse Event Rate, and Patients Requiring 3 Intubation Attempts in the Emergency Department Had a 63.6% Adverse Event Rate (Acad Emerg Med, 2013) [MEDLINE]

References

General

Safe intrahospital transport of critically ill ventilator-dependent patients. Chest 1989; 96:631-635 [MEDLINE]
Airway considerations in the management of patients requiring long-term endotracheal intubation. Anesth Analg. 1992;74(2):276 [MEDLINE]
Unplanned extubations in the adult intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:1131-1137 [MEDLINE]
Death and other complications of emergency airway management in critically ill adults. Anesthesiology 1995; 82:367-376 [MEDLINE]
Bedside procedures: solutions to the pitfalls of intrahospital transport. Crit Care Clin 2000; 16:1-6 [MEDLINE]
Prediction of difficult mask ventilation. Anesthesiology 2000;92:1229–1236 [MEDLINE]
Difficult airway management in the emergency department. J Emerg Med. 2002 Jan;22(1):31-48 [MEDLINE]
Clinical practice guidelines for sustained neuromuscular blockade in the adult critically ill patient. Crit Care Med. 2002 Jan;30(1):142-56 [MEDLINE]
Towards evidence based emergency medicine: best BETs from the Manchester Royal Infirmary. Colourimetric CO(2) detector compared with capnography for confirming ET tube placement. Emerg Med J 2003: 20: 265-266 [MEDLINE]
The assessment of three methods to verify tracheal tube placement in the emergency setting. Resuscitation 2003; 56:153-157 [MEDLINE]
The effectiveness of out-of-hospital use of continuous end-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring on the rate of unrecognized misplaced intubation within a regional emergency medical services system. Ann Emerg Med 2005; 45:497-503 [MEDLINE]
Clinical review: management of difficult airways. Crit Care 2006;10:243. doi: 10.1186/cc5112 [MEDLINE]
Incidence and predictors of difficult or impossible mask ventilation. Anesthesiology 2006;105:885–891 [MEDLINE]
Caution when using colorimetry to confirm endotracheal intubation. Anesth Analg 2007;104:738 [MEDLINE]
2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Part 8: adult advanced cardiovascular life support. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl 3):S729-S767 [MEDLINE]
Airway management in critically ill patients. Lung 2011; 189:181-192 [MEDLINE]
Emergency airway management: the difficult airway. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2012; 30:401-420 [MEDLINE]
Practice guidelines for management of the difficult airway: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway. Anesthesiology. 2013;118:251–270 [MEDLINE]
The effect of body mass index on intubation success rates and complications during emergency airway management. Intern Emerg Med. 2013 Feb;8(1):75-82. Epub 2012 Nov 25 [MEDLINE]
Video laryngoscopy versus direct laryngoscopy for orotracheal intubation in the intensive care unit: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2014 May;40(5):629-39. doi: 10.1007/s00134-014-3236-5. Epub 2014 Feb 21 [MEDLINE]
Transnasal humidified rapid-insufflation ventilatory exchange (THRIVE): a physiological method of increasing apnoea time in patients with difficult airways. Anaesthesia 2015;70:323-9 [MEDLINE]
Use of high-flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy to prevent desaturation during tracheal intubation of intensive care patients with mild-to-moderate hypoxemia. Crit Care Med. 2015;43:574–583 [MEDLINE]
Heated humidified high-flow nasal oxygen in adults: mechanisms of action and clinical implications. Chest. 2015;148(1):253–261 [MEDLINE]
First Pass Success Without Hypoxemia Is Increased With the Use of Apneic Oxygenation During Rapid Sequence Intubation in the Emergency Department. Acad Emerg Med. 2016 Jun;23(6):703-10. Epub 2016 May 13 [MEDLINE]

Assessment for Upper Airway Obstruction

A life-saving maneuver to prevent food-choking. JAMA. 1975;234(4):398 [MEDLINE]
Heimlich versus a slap on the back. N Engl J Med. 1979;300(17):990 [MEDLINE]
The choking controversy: critique of evidence on the Heimlich maneuver. Crit Care Med. 1979;7(10):475 [MEDLINE]
Chest compression–an alternative to the Heimlich manoeuver? Resuscitation. 1992;24(1):91 [MEDLINE]
Traumatic rupture of the stomach secondary to Heimlich maneuver. Am J Emerg Med. 1993;11(6):611 [MEDLINE]
Assessment of upper airway anatomy in awake, sedated and anaesthetised patients using magnetic resonance imaging. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1994;22(2):165 [MEDLINE]
Magnetic resonance imaging of the upper airway. Effects of propofol anesthesia and nasal continuous positive airway pressure in humans. Anesthesiology. 1996;84(2):273 [MEDLINE]
Gastric rupture secondary to successful Heimlich manoeuvre. Postgrad Med J. 1998;74(876):609 [MEDLINE]
Airway pressure with chest compressions versus Heimlich manoeuvre in recently dead adults with complete airway obstruction. Resuscitation. 2000;44(2):105 [MEDLINE]
Rupture of the lesser gastric curvature after a Heimlich maneuver. Surg Endosc. 2003;17(9):1495 [MEDLINE]
Part 4: CPR overview: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2010;122(18 Suppl 3):S676 [MEDLINE]
Part 5: Adult Basic Life Support and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Quality: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2015;132(18 Suppl 2):S414 [MEDLINE]

Airway Maneuvers

Resuscitation–opening the airway. A comparative study of techniques for opening an airway obstructed by the tongue. JACEP. 1976;5(8):588 [MEDLINE]
The effect of airway maneuvers on the unstable C1-C2 segment. A cadaver study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1997;22(11):1215 [MEDLINE]
Cervical spine motion during airway management: a cinefluoroscopic study of the posteriorly destabilized third cervical vertebrae in human cadavers. Anesth Analg. 2000;91(5):1274 [MEDLINE]
Effectiveness of the jaw-thrust maneuver in opening the airway: a flexible fiberoptic endoscopic study. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2005;67(1):39 [MEDLINE]

Airway Adjuncts

The nasopharyngeal airway. Assessment of position by fibreoptic laryngoscopy. Anaesthesia. 1993;48(7):575 [MEDLINE]
The nasopharyngeal airway: dispelling myths and establishing the facts. Emerg Med J. 2005;22(6):394 [MEDLINE]

Bag-Valve-Mask Ventilation

Simultaneous aortic, jugular bulb, and right atrial pressures during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in humans. Insights into mechanisms. Circulation. 1989;80(2):361 [MEDLINE]
Comparison of self-inflating bags with anesthesia bags for bag-mask ventilation in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1997;13(5):312 [MEDLINE]
Hyperventilation-induced hypotension during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation. 2004;109(16):1960 [MEDLINE]
Death by hyperventilation: a common and life-threatening problem during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(9 Suppl):S345 [MEDLINE]
The effect of leaving dentures in place on bag-mask ventilation at induction of general anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2007;105(2):370 [MEDLINE]
A two-handed jaw-thrust technique is superior to the one-handed “EC-clamp” technique for mask ventilation in the apneic unconscious person. Anesthesiology. 2010;113(4):873 [MEDLINE]
Face mask ventilation in edentulous patients: a comparison of mandibular groove and lower lip placement. Anesthesiology. 2010;112(5):1190 [MEDLINE]
Efficacy of facemask ventilation techniques in novice providers. Clin Anesth. 2013 May;25(3):193-7 [MEDLINE]
Difficult face-mask ventilation and difficult laryngoscopy Anesthesiology. 2014 Aug;121(2):421-2. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000293 [MEDLINE]
Optimizing Mask Ventilation: Literature Review and Development of a Conceptual Framework. Respir Care. 2015 Dec;60(12):1834-40. doi: 10.4187/respcare.04183 [MEDLINE]

Body Position

Analysis of the forces and position required for direct laryngoscopic exposure of the anterior vocal folds. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1999;108(8):715 [MEDLINE]
Head and neck elevation beyond the sniffing position improves laryngeal view in cases of difficult direct laryngoscopy. J Clin Anesth. 2002;14(5):335 [MEDLINE]
Head-elevated laryngoscopy position: improving laryngeal exposure during laryngoscopy by increasing head elevation. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41(3):322 [MEDLINE]
Laryngoscopy and morbid obesity: a comparison of the “sniff” and “ramped” positions. Obes Surg. 2004;14(9):1171 [MEDLINE]
Head-Elevated Patient Positioning Decreases Complications of Emergent Tracheal Intubation in the Ward and Intensive Care Unit. Anesth Analg. 2016 Apr;122(4):1101-7 [MEDLINE]

Cricoid Pressure (Sellick Maneuver)

Best evidence topic report. Cricoid pressure in emergency rapid sequence induction. Emerg Med J. 2005;22(11):815 [MEDLINE]

Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI)

A comparison of blind nasotracheal and succinylcholine-assisted intubation in the poisoned patient. Ann Emerg Med. 1987;16(6):650 [MEDLINE]
Decreased circulation time in the upper limb reduces the lag time of the finger pulse oximeter response. Can J Anaesth. 1992 Jan;39(1):87-9 [MEDLINE]
- Rapid-sequence intubation in head trauma. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22(6):1008 [MEDLINE]
Critical hemoglobin desaturation will occur before return to an unparalyzed state following 1 mg/kg intravenous succinylcholine. Anesthesiology. 1997;87(4):979 [MEDLINE]
Airway management in the emergency department: a one-year study of 610 tracheal intubations. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;31(3):325 [MEDLINE]
Complications of emergency intubation with and without paralysis. Am J Emerg Med. 1999;17(2):141 [MEDLINE]
The failed intubation attempt in the emergency department: analysis of prevalence, rescue techniques, and personnel. J Emerg Med. 2002;23(2):131 [MEDLINE]
Airway management by US and Canadian emergency medicine residents: a multicenter analysis of more than 6,000 endotracheal intubation attempts. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;46(4):328 [MEDLINE]
Preoxygenation and prevention of desaturation during emergency airway management. Ann Emerg Med. 2012 Mar;59(3):165-75.e1 [MEDLINE]
Neuromuscular blocking agent administration for emergent tracheal intubation is associated with decreased prevalence of procedure-related complications. Crit Care Med. 2012 Jun;40(6):1808-1 [MEDLINE]
Neuromuscular blockade improves first-attempt success for intubation in the intensive care unit. A propensity matched analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2015;12(5):734 [MEDLINE]
Techniques, success, and adverse events of emergency department adult intubations. Ann Emerg Med. 2015 Apr;65(4):363-370.e1 [MEDLINE]
The Physiologically Difficult Airway. West J Emerg Med. 2015;16(7):1109 [MEDLINE]
The effectiveness of rapid sequence intubation (RSI) versus non-RSI in emergency department: an analysis of multicenter prospective observational study. Int J Emerg Med. 2017;10(1):1 [MEDLINE]
Management of Patients with Predicted Difficult Airways in an Academic Emergency Department. J Emerg Med. 2017;53(2):163 [MEDLINE]

Awake Laryngoscopy

Endotracheal intubation in the ICU. Crit Care. 2015;19:258 [MEDLINE]
Awake Laryngoscopy in the Emergency Department. J Emerg Med. 2017;52(3):324 [MEDLINE]

Confirmation of Endotracheal Tube Placement

Accidental intubation of the oesophagus. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1980;8(2):183 [MEDLINE]
End-tidal CO2 as a guide to successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a preliminary report. Crit Care Med. 1985;13(11):910 [MEDLINE]
Esophageal intubation: a review of detection techniques. Anesth Analg. 1986;65(8):886 [MEDLINE]
Unrecognized endobronchial intubation of emergency patients. Ann Emerg Med. 1989;18(8):853 [MEDLINE]
A comparative study of methods of detection of esophageal intubation. Anesth Analg. 1989;69(5):627 [MEDLINE]
Multicenter study of a portable, hand-size, colorimetric end-tidal carbon dioxide detection device. Ann Emerg Med. 1992 May;21(5):518-23 [MEDLINE]
Women are at greater risk than men for malpositioning of the endotracheal tube after emergent intubation. Crit Care Med. 1994;22(7):1127 [MEDLINE]
Proper depth placement of oral endotracheal tubes in adults prior to radiographic confirmation. Acad Emerg Med. 1995;2(1):20 [MEDLINE]
Use of tube condensation as an indicator of endotracheal tube placement. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;31(5):575 [MEDLINE]
Comparison of three different methods to confirm tracheal tube placement in emergency intubation. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(6):701 [MEDLINE]
Towards evidence based emergency medicine: best BETs from the Manchester Royal Infirmary. Colourimetric CO(2) detector compared with capnography for confirming ET tube placement. Emerg Med J. 2003 May;20(3):265-6 [MEDLINE]
An assessment of a tracheal tube introducer as an endotracheal tube placement confirmation device. Am J Emerg Med. 2005;23(6):754 [MEDLINE]
Endobronchial intubation detected by insertion depth of endotracheal tube, bilateral auscultation, or observation of chest movements: randomised trial. BMJ. 2010;341:c5943 [MEDLINE]
Ultrasonography in the management of the airway. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2011 Nov;55(10):1155-73. Epub 2011 Sep 7 [MEDLINE]
Tracheal rapid ultrasound exam (T.R.U.E.) for confirming endotracheal tube placement during emergency intubation. Resuscitation. 2011 Oct;82(10):1279-84. Epub 2011 Jun 1 [MEDLINE]
Transtracheal ultrasound for verification of endotracheal tube placement: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Anaesth. 2015 Apr;62(4):413-23. Epub 2014 Dec 24 [MEDLINE]
Ultrasonography for confirmation of endotracheal tube placement: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation. 2015;90:97 [MEDLINE]
Auscultation versus Point-of-care Ultrasound to Determine Endotracheal versus Bronchial Intubation: A Diagnostic Accuracy Study. Anesthesiology. 2016 May;124(5):1012-20 [MEDLINE]

Adverse Effects/Complications

Ulcerative tracheo-oesophageal fistula during treatment by tracheostomy and intermittent positive pressure ventilation. Thorax. 1972;27(3):338 [MEDLINE]
Tracheal injury following prolonged intubation. Aust N Z J Surg. 1976 Feb;46(1):18-25 [MEDLINE]
Intubation lesions of the larynx. Br J Anaesth. 1978;50(6):587 [MEDLINE]
Postoperative sore throat: influence of tracheal tube lubrication versus cuff design. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1980;27(2):156 [MEDLINE]
Laryngeal injuries secondary to nasogastric tubes. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1981;90(5 Pt 1):469 [MEDLINE]
The influence of endotracheal tube cuff design and cuff lubrication on postoperative sore throat. Anesthesiology. 1983;58(4):376 [MEDLINE]
Laryngotracheal injury due to endotracheal intubation: incidence, evolution, and predisposing factors. A prospective long-term study. Crit Care Med. 1983;11(5):362 [MEDLINE]
True vocal cord paralysis following intubation. Laryngoscope. 1985;95(11):1352 [MEDLINE]
Correlation of endotracheal tube size with sore throat and hoarseness following general anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1987 Sep;67(3):419-21 [MEDLINE]
Laryngeal complications of prolonged intubation. Chest. 1989;96(4):877 [MEDLINE]
Anesthesia-induced dental injury. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 1989;27(2):120 [MEDLINE]
Unsuspected cervical fractures: a common problem in ankylosing spondylitis. Anesthesiology. 1989;70(5):869 [MEDLINE]
Tracheoesophageal fistula formation in intubated patients. Risk factors and treatment with high-frequency jet ventilation. Chest. 1990;98(1):161 [MEDLINE]
Swallowing disorders in patients with prolonged orotracheal intubation or tracheostomy tubes. Crit Care Med. 1990;18(12):1328 [MEDLINE]
Adverse respiratory events infrequently leading to malpractice suits. A closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology. 1991;75(6):932 [MEDLINE]
Surgical considerations in tracheal stenosis. Laryngoscope. 1992 Mar;102(3):237-43 [MEDLINE]
Resolution of laryngeal injury following translaryngeal intubation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145(2 Pt 1):361 [MEDLINE]
Evaluation of risk factors for laryngeal edema after tracheal extubation in adults and its prevention by dexamethasone. A placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter study. Anesthesiology. 1992;77(2):245 [MEDLINE]
Prophylactic laryngo-tracheal aerosolized lidocaine against postoperative sore throat. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1992;36(6):505 [MEDLINE]
Massive airway leaks: an analysis of the role of endotracheal tubes. Crit Care Med. 1993;21(4):518 [MEDLINE]
Mediastinitis and sepsis syndrome following intubation. Anaesthesia. 1994;49(10):883 [MEDLINE]
Risk factors associated with prolonged intubation and laryngeal injury. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1994;111(4):453 [MEDLINE]
[A survey of perioperative bronchospasm in 105 patients with reactive airway disease]. Masui. 1995;44(3):396 [MEDLINE]
Management of acquired tracheoesophageal fistula. Chest Surg Clin N Am. 1996 Nov;6(4):819-36 [MEDLINE]
Gastroesophageal reflux in patients with subglottic stenosis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998 May;124(5):551-5 [MEDLINE]
Airway injury during anesthesia: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology. 1999;91(6):170 [MEDLINE]
Postextubation fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing after prolonged endotracheal intubation: a randomized, prospective trial. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(9):1710 [MEDLINE]
Postoperative sore throat after ambulatory surgery. Br J Anaesth. 2002;88(4):582 [MEDLINE]
Tracheoesophageal fistula. Chest Surg Clin N Am. 2003 May;13(2):271-89 [MEDLINE]
Vocal fold injury following endotracheal intubation. J Laryngol Otol. 2005 Oct;119(10):825-7 [MEDLINE]
Association of airway abnormalities and risk factors in 37 subglottic stenosis patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006 Sep;135(3):434-7 [MEDLINE]
Review of tracheo-esophageal fistula associated with endotracheal intubation. J Surg Educ. 2007 Jul-Aug;64(4):237-40 [MEDLINE]
Risk factors for adult laryngotracheal stenosis: a review of 74 cases. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2007 Mar;116(3):206-10 [MEDLINE]
Short-term effects of endotracheal intubation on voice. J Voice. 2007 Nov;21(6):762-8 [MEDLINE]
Age and comorbidity as risk factors for vocal cord paralysis associated with tracheal intubation. Br J Anaesth. 2007 Apr;98(4):524-30 [MEDLINE]
Effect of positive expiratory pressure and type of tracheal cuff on the incidence of aspiration in mechanically ventilated patients in an intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(2):409 [MEDLINE]
CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care-associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. Am J Infect Control. 2008;36(5):309 [MEDLINE]
Spiral CT virtual bronchoscopy with multiplanar reformatting in the evaluation of post-intubation tracheal stenosis: comparison between endoscopic, radiological and surgical findings. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2009;266(6):863 [MEDLINE]
Incidence and impact of dysphagia in patients receiving prolonged endotracheal intubation after cardiac surgery. Can J Surg. 2009;52(2):119 [MEDLINE]
The incidence of dysphagia following endotracheal intubation: a systematic review. Chest. 2010;137(3):665 [MEDLINE]
Postoperative patient complaints: a prospective interview study of 12,276 patients. J Clin Anesth. 2010;22(1):13 [MEDLINE]
Cost analysis of intubation-related tracheal injury using a national database. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2010 Jul;143(1):31-6. doi: 10.1016/j.otohns.2009.11.004 [MEDLINE]
Endotracheal tube size and sore throat following surgery: a randomized-controlled study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2010 Feb;54(2):147-53 [MEDLINE]
Post-intubation laryngeal injuries and extubation failure: a fiberoptic endoscopic study. Intensive Care Med. 2010 Jun;36(6):991-8. Epub 2010 Mar 18 [MEDLINE]
Postextubation obstructive pseudomembranes: a case series and review of a rare complication after endotracheal intubation. Lung. 2011 Feb;189(1):81-6. Epub 2010 Nov 17 [MEDLINE]
Laryngeal injury from prolonged intubation: a prospective analysis of contributing factors. Laryngoscope. 2011;121(3):596 [MEDLINE]
Posttracheostomy tracheoesophageal fistula. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2012 Jan;28(1):140-1 [MEDLINE]
Association between repeated intubation attempts and adverse events in emergency departments: an analysis of a multicenter prospective observational study. Ann Emerg Med. 2012 Dec;60(6):749-754.e2 [MEDLINE]
Endotracheal tube cuff leaks: causes, consequences, and management. Anesth Analg. 2013 Aug;117(2):428-34[MEDLINE]
Surgical Management of Benign Acquired Tracheoesophageal Fistulas: A Ten-Year Experience. Ann Thorac Surg. 2016;102(4):1081 [MEDLINE]
Incidence and risk factors of postoperative sore throat after endotracheal intubation in Korean patients. J Int Med Res. 2017;45(2):744 [MEDLINE]
Effect of Endotracheal Tube Cuff Shape on Postoperative Sore Throat After Endotracheal Intubation. Anesth Analg. 2017;125(4):1240 [MEDLINE]
The Effect of Zinc Lozenge on Postoperative Sore Throat: A Prospective Randomized, Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Study. Anesth Analg. 2018;126(1):78 [MEDLINE]