Bilateral Vocal Fold Immobility (BVFI) (see Bilateral Vocal Fold Immobility)

Cricoarytenoid Arthritis (see Cricoarytenoid Arthritis)

• Primary Rheumatologic Disease
  • Ankylosing Spondylitis (see Ankylosing Spondylitis)
  • Gout (see Gout)
  • Reiter’s Syndrome (see Reiter’s Syndrome)
  • Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) (see Rheumatoid Arthritis)
    • Rheumatoid Nodules May Occur in the Soft Tissues Surrounding the Cricoarytenoid Joint
  • Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) (see Systemic Lupus Erythematosus)
• Other
  • Cricoarytenoid Joint Ankylosis Due to Prior Streptococcal Infection (see Streptococcus)
  • Crohn’s Disease (see Crohn’s Disease)
  • External Trauma to Cricoarytenoid Joint
  • Internal Trauma Due to Endotracheal Tube-Related Injury to the Cricoarytenoid Joint
    • Manifestations
      • Anterior or Posterior Arytenoid Displacement
      • Posterior Dislocation Resulting from Extubation with a Partially Inflated Endotracheal Tube Cuff
      • Arytenoid Chondritis Secondary to Prolonged Endotracheal Intubation
  • Mumps-Associated Laryngeal Arthritis (see Mumps Virus)
  • Radiation Therapy Injury to Cricoarytenoid Joint (see Radiation Therapy)
  • Tietze’s Syndrome (see Tietze’s Syndrome)

Laryngeal Inflammation

• Amyloidosis (see Amyloidosis)
• Bullous Pemphigoid of Upper Airway (see Bullous Pemphigoid)
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) (see Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease)
• Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (GPA) (Wegener’s Granulomatosis) (see Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis)
• Relapsing Polychondritis (see Relapsing Polychondritis)
• Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis)
• Syphilis (see Syphilis)
  • Clinical
    • May Be Acute or Progressive
• Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis)

Laryngospasm (see Laryngospasm)

• Aspiration Event (see Aspiration Pneumonia)
  • Epidemiology
    • Associated with Intubation for Mechanical Ventilation (see Invasive Mechanical Ventilation-General)
    • Associated with Procedural Sedation (see Sedation)
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) (see Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease)
• Chlorine Gas/Aerosol Inhalation (see Chlorine)
• General Anesthesia (see General Anesthesia)
  • Epidemiology
    • Laryngospasm Typically Occurs on Emergence from General Anesthesia
• Hypocalcemia (see Hypocalcemia)
• Post-Extubation
• Organophosphate Intoxication (see Organophosphates-Carbamates)
  • Physiology
    • Nicotinic Effects Cause Laryngospasm

Neurologic Disease/Dysfunction Involving the Vocal Folds

• Alport Syndrome (see Alport Syndrome)
  • Epidemiology
    • Case Report Involved a Patient with Chronic Kidney Disease, Postoperative from Surgery with Large Amount of Blood Loss and Possible Impaired Perfusion to Recurrent Laryngeal Nerves (with Ischemic Injury) During the Case
• Altered Mental Status with Inability to Protect Upper Airway
  • Physiology
    • Airway Obstruction Occurs Due to Tongue Prolapse into the Posterior Pharynx and/or Decreased Soft Palate Muscular Tone (Anaesth Intensive Care, 1994) [MEDLINE] (Anesthesiology, 1996) [MEDLINE]
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) (see Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis)
• Arnold-Chiari Malformation
• Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) (see Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease)
• Diabetes Mellitus (DM) (see Diabetes Mellitus)
  • Physiology
    • Neuropathy Involving the Laryngeal Nerves
• Dystonic Reaction of Pharyngeal and Laryngeal Muscles (see Dystonic Reaction of Pharyngeal+Laryngeal Muscles): typically acute
• Essential Tremor (see Essential Tremor)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Hydrocephalus (see Hydrocephalus)
• Hypocalcemia (see Hypocalcemia)
• Hypokalemia (see Hypokalemia)
• Hypokalemic Periodic Paralysis (see Hypokalemic Periodic Paralysis)
• Idiopathic Bilateral Vocal Cord Paralysis
• Laryngeal/Tracheal Fracture (with Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Injury) (see Tracheobronchial Fracture)
• Lyme Disease (see Lyme Disease)
  • Physiology
    • Neuropathy Involving the Laryngeal Nerves
• Mediastinal Mass/Lymphadenopathy (with Compression of Recurrent Laryngeal Nerves)see Mediastinal Mass)
• Meningomyelocele
• Mobius Syndrome
• Myasthenia Gravis (see Myasthenia Gravis)
• Paclitaxel (Taxol) (see Paclitaxel)
  • Physiology
    • Neuropathy Involving the Laryngeal Nerves
• Paradoxical Vocal Fold Motion (Vocal Cord Dysfunction) (see Paradoxical Vocal Fold Motion)
  • Clinical
    • Typically acute
• Parkinson’s Disease (see Parkinson’s Disease)
  • Clinical
    • May Be Acute (Particularly in the Postoperative Setting) or Progressive
• Postpolio Syndrome (see Poliomyelitis)
• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) (see Rheumatoid Arthritis)
  • Physiology
    • Arteritis of Vasa Vasorum of Recurrent Laryngeal/Vagus Nerves
• Shy-Drager Syndrome
• Synkinesis of the Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve
• Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) (see Systemic Lupus Erythematosus)
  • Physiology
    • Neuropathy Involving the Laryngeal Nerves
• Vincristine (see Vincristine)
  • Physiology
    • Neuropathy Involving the Laryngeal Nerves

Developmental Abnormality or Neoplasm the Involving Vocal Folds

• Angioma
• Carcinoma
• Cervical Node Metastases (with Extrinsic Compression of Upper Airway)
  • Thyroid Cancer (see Thyroid Cancer)
  • Head and Neck Cancer (Squamous Cell Carcinoma (see Head and Neck Cancer)
• Chondroma
• Chondrosarcoma
• Congenital Laryngeal Malformation
• Cystic Hygroma
• Granuloma
• Histiocytoma
• Lymphoma (see Lymphoma)
• Papilloma
• Polyp
• Rhabdomyosarcoma (see Rhabdomyosarcoma)
• Thyroid Cancer (see Thyroid Cancer)
• Tracheal Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma (see Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma)

Intubation Injury to Vocal Folds (see Endotracheal Tube-Associated Laryngeal Injury)

• Acute
  • Arytenoid Dislocation
  • Excessive Endotracheal Cuff Pressure with Compression of Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Where It Enters the Larynx
  • Hyperextension of Neck with Vagus Nerve Injury
  • Larygneal Mask Airway (LMA)-Related Injury
  • Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Injury Due to Anterior Thyroid Cartilage Displacement (Relative to the Cricoid Cartilage)
• Chronic
  • Excessive Endotracheal Tube Cuff Pressure with Compression of Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Where It Enters the Larynx
  • Posterior Glottic Stenosis (PGS): due to prolonged or traumatic intubation
  • Vocal Cord Granuloma

Mechanical/Iatrogenic Injury to Vocal Folds

• Nasogastric Tube Syndrome (see Nasogastric Tube Syndrome)
  • Epidemiology
    • First Reported in 1981
  • Risk Group
    • Diabetic Renal Transplant Patients (Due to Prolonged Gastroparesis and Requirement for Nasogastric Tube Drainage)
• Proximal Esophageal Stent Placement (see Esophageal Stent)

Radiation Injury to Vocal Folds (see Radiation Therapy)

• Radiation-Induced Chondronecrosis of Larynx
• Radiation-Induced Fibrosis of the Cricoarytenoid Joint and/or Vocal Cords
• Radiation-Induced Injury to Cricoarytenoid Joint: see Cricoarytenoid Arthritis above
• Radiation Injury to Vocal Cords

Surgical Injury to Vocal Folds

• Anterior Cervical Disk Surgery
  • Epidemiology
    • Typically Results in Unilateral Injury (Which May Compromise the Upper Airway if Contralateral Side was Previously Injured)
• Brainstem Surgery
  • Epidemiology
    • May Result in Bilateral Injury
• Cardiac Surgery
• Carotid Endarterectomy
  • Epidemiology
    • Typically Results in Unilateral Injury (Which May Compromise the Upper Airway if Contralateral Side was Previously Injured)
• Endolaryngeal Surgery (Using Carbon Dioxide Laser)
  • Epidemiology
    • May Damage the Posterior Glottis
• Esophageal Surgery
  • Epidemiology
    • May Result in Bilateral Injury
• Thyroid Surgery
  • Epidemiology
    • Accounts for 48% of All Surgical Cases
    • May Result in Bilateral Injury
• Parathyroid Surgery
  • Epidemiology
    • May Result in Bilateral Injury
• Tracheal Surgery
  • Epidemiology
    • May Result in Bilateral Injury

Other Upper Airway Disease

Infection

• Coccidioidomycosis (see Coccidioidomycosis)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Croup (see Croup)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Cryptococcosis (see Cryptococcosis)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Deep Neck Infection (see Deep Neck Infection)
  • General Comments
    • Typically Acute
  • Peritonsillar Abscess (Involving Peritonsillar Space) (see Peritonsillar Abscess)
  • Pretracheal Abscess (Involving Pretracheal Space) (see Pretracheal Abscess)
  • Retropharyngeal Abscess (Involving Retropharyngeal Space) (see Retropharyngeal Abscess)
  • Submandibular Space Abscess/Ludwig’s Angina (Involving Submandibular Space) (see Ludwig’s Angina)
• Diphtheria (see Diphtheria)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Epiglottitis (see Epiglottitis)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Histoplasmosis (see Histoplasmosis)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Syphilis (see Syphilis)

Miscellaneous

• Ammonia Inhalation (see Ammonia)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Anaphylaxis (see Anaphylaxis)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Angioedema (see Angioedema)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Congenital Small Cricoid Cartilage
  • Clinical
    • Typically Progressive
• Esophageal Foreign Body
  • Physiology
    • Extrinsic Compression of Upper Airway
  • Clinical
    • Typically Progressive
• Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (see Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Laryngeal Cyst/Laryngocele
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Laryngeal Rheumatoid Nodule (see Rheumatoid Arthritis)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Progressive
• Macroglossia
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Nasal Polyps (see Nasal Polyps)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) (see Obstructive Sleep Apnea)
  • Epidemiology
    • More Commonly Occurs in the Postoperative Setting*
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute
• Strangulation/Near Hanging (see Near Hanging)
  • Epidemiology
    • In Non-Judicial Hangings (Where he Drop is <6.5-7.5 ft) and the Dens Does Not Fracture Off, Death Most Commonly Occurs Due to Pulmonary Complications
• Thermal Injury/Burns of Upper Airway (see Smoke Inhalation)
  • Clinical
    • May Be Acute
  • Thermal injury is usually supraglottic (typically, laryngeal injury)
• Thyromegaly/Goiter (see Goiter)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Progressive
• Tracheal Cyst
  • Clinical
    • Typically Progressive
• Tracheomalacia (see Tracheobronchomalacia)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Progressive
• Tonsillar/Adenoid Enlargement
  • Clinical
    • Typically Progressive
• Unilateral Vocal Cord Paralysis (see Unilateral Vocal Fold Immobility)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Mild Upper Airway Obstruction
• Upper Airway Foreign Body (see Airway Foreign Body)
  • Clinical
    • Typically Acute

Tracheobronchial Infection

• Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Tracheobronchitis (see Herpes Simplex Virus)
• Klebsiella Rhinoscleroma (see Klebsiella Rhinoscleroma)
• Mycobacterium Avium Complex (MAC) (see Mycobacterium Avium Complex)
• Tracheobronchial Aspergillosis (see Tracheobronchial Aspergillosis)
• Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis)

Tracheobronchial Neoplasm

Primary Tracheobronchial Tumor

• Acinar Cell Carcinoma (see Acinar Cell Carcinoma)
• Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma (see Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma)
• Bronchial Adenoma (see Bronchial Adenoma)
• Bronchial Cystadenoma (see Bronchial Cystadenoma)
• Bronchial Carcinoid (see Bronchial Carcinoid)
• Carcinosarcoma (see Carcinosarcoma)
• Chemodectoma (see Chemodectoma)
• Chondroma (see Chondroma)
• Epithelial-Myoepithelial Carcinoma (see Epithelial-Myoepithelial Carcinoma)
• Fibroma (see Fibroma)
• Fibrous Histiocytoma or Xanthoma (see Fibrous Histiocytoma or Xanthoma)
• Glomus Tumor(see Glomus Tumor)
• Granular Cell Myoblastoma (see Granular Cell Myoblastoma)
• Hamartoma (see Hamartoma)
• Inflammatory Tracheobronchial Papilloma (see Inflammatory Tracheobronchial Papilloma)
• Leiomyoma (see Leiomyoma)
• Lipoma (see Lipoma)
• Lung Cancer (see Lung Cancer): common etiology
• Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis (see Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis)
• Malignant Myoepithelioma (see Malignant Myoepithelioma)
• Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma (see Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma)
• Mucoid Pseudotumor (see Mucoid Pseudotumor)
• Multiple Laryngeal Papillomatosis (see Multiple Laryngeal Papillomatosis)
• Myxoma (see Myxoma)
• Neurofibroma (see Neurofibroma)
• Oncocytic Carcinoma
• Papillary Cystadenocarcinoma
• Plasma Cell Granuloma (see Plasma Cell Granuloma)
• Primary Pulmonary Hodgkin’s Disease (see Primary Pulmonary Hodgkins Disease)
• Primary Pulmonary Lymphoma (see Primary Pulmonary Lymphoma)
• Primary Pulmonary Melanoma (see Primary Pulmonary Melanoma)
• Primary Pulmonary Sarcoma (see Primary Pulmonary Sarcoma)
• Sebaceous Carcinoma (see Sebaceous Carcinoma)
• Solitary Tracheobronchial Papilloma (see Solitary Tracheobronchial Papilloma)
• Tracheal Chondrosarcoma (see Chondrosarcoma)
• Tracheal Squamous Cell Cancer (see Tracheal Squamous Cell Cancer)

Endobronchial Metastases (see also Lung Metastases-Endobronchial)

• Breast Cancer (see Breast Cancer)
• Cervical Cancer (see Cervical Cancer)
• Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) (see Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia)
• Colorectal Cancer (see Colorectal Cancer)
• Endometrioma (see Endometrioma)
• Esophageal Cancer (see Esophageal Cancer)
• Germ Cell Tumor (see Germ Cell Tumor)
• Head and Neck Cancer (see Head and Neck Cancer)
• Hodgkin’s Disease (see Hodgkins Disease)
• Kaposi Sarcoma (see Kaposi Sarcoma)
• Lymphoma (see Lymphoma)
• Melanoma (see Melanoma)
• Ovarian Cancer (see Ovarian Cancer)
• Plasmacytoma (see Multiple Myeloma])
• Renal Cell Cancer (see Renal Cancer)
• Sarcoma
• Testicular Cancer (see Testicular Cancer)
• Thymic Carcinoma (see Thymoma)
• Thyroid Cancer (see Thyroid Cancer)
• Urothelial Cell Carcinoma (Transitional Cell Carcinoma) (see Urothelial Cell Carcinoma)
  • Bladder Cancer (see Bladder Cancer)
  • Renal Cancer (see Renal Cancer)
  • Ureteral Cancer (see Ureteral Cancer)
  • Urethral Cancer (see Urethral Cancer])

Extrinsic Tracheobronchial Compression

• Enlarged Pulmonary Artery: extrinsic compression of tracheobronchial airways
  • Tetralogy of Fallot (see Tetralogy of Fallot): in infants and children
  • Transposition of Great Vessles with Ventricular Septal Defect: in infants and children
• Granulomatous Mediastinitis and Fibrosing Mediastinitis (see Granulomatous Mediastinitis and Fibrosing Mediastinitis])
  • Physiology: extrinsic compression of tracheobronchial airways
• Mediastinal Mass (see Mediastinal Mass): extrinsic compression of tracheobronchial airways
  • Bulky Mediastinal or Peribronchial Lymphadenopathy
    • Cancer
    • Hodgkin’s Disease (see Hodgkin’s Disease)
    • Lymphoma (see Lymphoma)
    • Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis): involvement of mediastinal nodes may compress RML bronchus
    • Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis)
  • Mediastinal Tumor
• Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm (TAA) (see Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm): extrinsic compression of tracheobronchial airways
• Thyroid Cancer/Thyromegaly/Goiter (see Goiter and Thyroid Cancer)
  • Physiology: extrinsic compression of trachea

Other Tracheobronchial Obstructive Process

• Airway Foreign Body (see Airway Foreign Body)
• Blood Clot
  • Epidemiology
    • Airway Obstruction by Blood Clots Typically Occurs Following Significant Hemoptysis
• Bronchial Stenosis (see Bronchial Stenosis)
• Bronchocentric Granulomatosis (see Bronchocentric Granulomatosis)
• Broncholithiasis (see Broncholithiasis)
• Bronchopulmonary Amyloidosis (see Amyloidosis)
• Goiter
• Granulation Tissue
  • Airway Foreign Body
  • Airway Stent
  • Endotracheal Tube
  • Surgical Airway Anastomosis (see Lung Transplant)
  • Tracheostomy Tube (see Tracheostomy)
• Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (Wegener’s Granulomatosis) (see Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis)
• Hunter’s Syndrome
  • Physiology
    • Due to Tracheal Stenosis
• Hurler’s Syndrome
  • Physiology
    • Due to Tracheal Stenosis
• Mucous Plug (see Mucous Plug)
  • Epidemiology
    • Tracheobronchial Obstruction by Mucous Plugging is Common in Patients with Lung Disease and Infection in the Intensive Care Unit Setting
• Mucoid Impaction (see Mucoid Impaction)
  • Physiology
    • Tracheobronchial Obstruction
• Post-Extubation Tracheal Edema
• Post-Pneumonectomy Syndrome (see Post-Pneumonectomy Syndrome)
• Post-Radiation Therapy (see Radiation Therapy)
  • Physiology
    • Bronchial Granulation Tissue (or Stricture)
• Relapsing Polychondritis (see Relapsing Polychondritis)
  • Physiology
    • Endotracheal or Endobronchial Obstruction by Loss of Supporting Cartilage in Airways
• Saber Sheath Trachea (see Saber Sheath Trachea)
• Smoke Inhalation (see Smoke Inhalation)
  • Physiology
    • Tracheobronchial Mucosal Injury with Sloughing and Airway Obstruction
• Toxic Fume Airway Injury
  • Physiology
    • Tracheobronchial Mucosal Injury with Sloughing and Airway Obstruction
• Tracheal Cyst (see Tracheal Cyst)
• Tracheal Stenosis (see Tracheal Stenosis)
• Tracheal Trauma
• Tracheobronchial Foreign Body (see Airway Foreign Body)
• Tracheobronchial Fracture (see Tracheobronchial Fracture)
• Tracheoesophageal Fistula (see Tracheoesophageal Fistula)
• Tracheobronchomalacia (see Tracheobronchomalacia)
• Tracheobronchial Web
  • Epidemiology
    • Idiopathic
    • Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis)
    • Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis)
• Tracheobronchopathia Osteochondroplastica (see Tracheobronchopathia Osteochondroplastica)

Infection

• Scombroid (see Scombroid)
  • Physiology
    • Ingestion of Histamine-Contaminated Fish (or Swiss Cheese)
  • Clinical
    • Bronchospasm (Cough, Dyspnea, Wheezing) May Be Severe in Patients with Underlying Lung Disease
• Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Tracheobronchitis (see Herpes Simplex Virus)
• Chlamydophila Pneumoniae (see Chlamydophila Pneumoniae)

Drug

• Abacavir Hypersensitivity Reaction (see Abacavir)
  • Clinical
    • Bronchospasm
      • Cough (see Cough)
      • Dyspnea (see Dyspnea)
      • Wheezing (see Wheezing)
• Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors (see Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors)
  • Epidemiology
    • Rarely, May Exacerbate Bronchospasm
• Adenosine (see Adenosine)
  • Epidemiology
    • May Cause Brief Bronchospasm When Used in the Diagnosis of Arrhythmias
• Benzylisoquinolinium Neuromuscular Junction Antagonists (see Neuromuscular Junction Antagonists)
  • Agents
    • Alcuronium
    • Atracurium (Tracrium) (see Atracurium)
    • Cisatracurium (Nimbex) (see Cisatracurium)
    • Doxacurium (see Doxacurium)
    • Mivacurium (see Mivacurium)
    • Tubocurarine
  • Pharmacology
    • Histamine Release-Mediated Bronchospasm
• β-Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists (Beta Blockers) (see β-Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists)
• Bronchodilator Agents Which Have Been Associated with Paradoxical Bronchospasm
  • Agents
    • Aclidinium (Tudorza Pressair) (see Aclidinium)
    • Albuterol (Ventolin) (see Albuterol)
    • Tiotropium (Spiriva) (see Tiotropium)
    • Tiotropium + Olodaterol (Stiolto Respimat) (see Tiotropium + Olodaterol)
• Cetuximab (Erbitux) (see Cetuximab)
• Chronic Berylliosis (see Beryllium)
  • Clinical
    • May Present with a Sarcoidosis-Like Multisystem Disease: wheezing, etc
• Cytokine Release Syndrome (see Cytokine Release Syndrome): occurs with the administration of specific monoclonal antibodies
  • Alemtuzumab (Campath, MabCampath, Campath-1H, Lemtrada) (see Alemtuzumab)
  • Anti-Thymocyte Globulin (ATG) (see Anti-Thymocyte Globulin)
  • Lenalidomide (Revlimid) (see Lenalidomide)
  • Muromonab-CD3 (Orthoclone OKT3) (see Muromonab-CD3)
  • Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin, Oxaliplatin Medac) (see Oxaliplatin)
  • Rituximab (Rituxan) (see Anti-CD20 Therapy)
  • Tisagenlecleucel (Kymriah) (see Tisagenlecleucel)
• Gemcitabine (Gemzar) (see Gemcitabine)
• Interferon-α (see Interferon)
• Mitomycin C (Mutamycin) (see Mitomycin)
• N-Acetylcysteine (Mucomyst, Acetadote, Fluimucil, Parvolex) (see N-Acetylcysteine):
  • Epidemiology
    • Bronchospasm Has Been Associated with Inhaled and Oral Administration
• Nitrofurantoin (Macrodantin) (see Nitrofurantoin)
• Ocrelizumab (Ocrevus) (see Ocrelizumab)
  • Epidemiology
    • Bronchospasm May Occur as a Manifestation of Infusion Reaction
• Opiates (see Opiates)
  • Agents
    • Codeine (see Codeine): codeine causes histamine release
    • Fentanyl (see Fentanyl)
    • Meperidine (Demerol) (see Meperidine) : meperidine causes histamine release
    • Morphine (see Morphine): morphine causes histamine release
• Paclitaxel (Taxol) (see Paclitaxel)
• Panitumumab (Vectibix) (see Panitumumab)
• Rasburicase (Elitek) (see Rasburicase)
• Ribavirin (Copegus, Moderiba, Rebetol, RibaPak, Ribasphere, RibaTab) (see Ribavirin)
  • Epidemiology
    • Aerosolized Ribavirin May Cause Bronchospasm
• Teniposide (Vumon) (see Teniposide)
• Trastuzumab (Herceptin) (see Trastuzumab)
• Vinblastine (Velban) (see Vinblastine)
• Zanamivir (Relenza) (see Zanamivir): inhalational

Toxin

• Acetic Acid Inhalation (see Acetic Acid)
• Ammonia Inhalation (see Ammonia)
• Bromine Inhalation/Methyl Bromide Inhalation (see Bromine-Methyl Bromide)
• Chlorine Gas/Aerosol Inhalation (see Chlorine)
• Chloropicrin Gas Inhalation (see Chloropicrin Gas)
• Cholinergic Intoxication (see Cholinergic Intoxication)
  • Cigua Toxin Poisoning (see Cigua Toxin Poisoning)
  • Organophosphate/Carbamate Intoxication (see Organophosphates-Carbamates)
  • Scorpion Sting (see Scorpion Sting)
    • Associated Scorpion Species
      • Centuroides Exilicauda (Sculpuratus)
      • Centuroides Suffusus
  • Toxic Mushrooms (see Toxic Mushrooms)
    • Associated Mushrooms
      • Boletus Calopus
      • Clitocybe Dealbata
      • Clitocybe Illudens
      • Inocybe Fastigiata
    • Toxin: muscarine acts at muscarinic receptors in autonomic nervous system
• Chromic Acid Inhalation (see Chromic Acid)
• Diborane Gas Inhalation (see Diborane Gas)
• Dinitrogen Tetroxide Inhalation (see Dinitrogen Tetroxide)
• Hydrofluoric Acid Inhalation (see Hydrofluoric Acid)
• Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Inhalation (see Hydrogen Sulfide Gas)
• Metal Fume Fever (see Metal Fume Fever)
• Methamphetamine (see Methamphetamine)
• Methyl Isocyanate Inhalation (see Methyl Isocyanate)
• Methyl Isothiocyanate Inhalation (see Methyl Isothiocyanate)
• Neurotoxic Shellfish Inhalation (see Neurotoxic Shellfish)
  • Epidemiology
    • Risk of Airway Obstruction is Highest in Patients with Asthma and Chronic Lung Disease
  • Physiology
    • Inhalation of Aerosolized Brevetoxins
• Nitric Acid Inhalation (see Nitric Acid)
• Nitrogen Dioxide Inhalation (see Nitrogen Dioxide)
• Ozone Inhalation (see Ozone)
• Phosgene Gas Inhalation (see Phosgene Gas)
• Phosphine Gas Inhalation (see Phosphine Gas)
• Polymer Fume Fever (see Polymer Fume Fever)
• Smoke Inhalation (see Smoke Inhalation)
• Sulfur Dioxide Inhalation (see Sulfur Dioxide)
• Sulfuric Acid Inhalation (see Sulfuric Acid)
• Sulfur Mustard Gas Inhalation (see Sulfur Mustard Gas)
• Tear Gas Inhalation (see Tear Gas)
• VX Nerve Agent (see VX Nerve Agent)
• Zinc Chloride Gas Inhalation (Smoke Bomb Exposure) (see Zinc Chloride Gas)

Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia (PIE) Syndrome (see Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia)

• Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia (see Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia)
• Acute Lung Transplant Rejection (Acute Cellular Lung Transplant Rejection) (see Acute Lung Transplant Rejection)
  • Peripheral Eosinophilia May Occur with/without Pulmonary Infiltrates (as Acute Rejection May Be Detected by Surveillance Bronchoscopy with Transbronchial Biopsy Prior to the Development of Pulmonary Infiltrates)
• Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA) (see Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis)
• Allergic Bronchopulmonary Candidiasis (see Candida)
• Bronchocentric Granulomatosis (see Bronchocentric Granulomatosis)
• Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia (see Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia)
• Dirofilariasis (see Dirofilariasis)
• Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia (see Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia)
• Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome (see Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome)
• Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (EGPA, Churg-Strauss Syndrome, Allergic Angiitis and Granulomatosis) (see Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis)
• Hypereosinophilic Syndrome (see Hypereosinophilic Syndrome)
• Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis)
• Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Loffler’s Syndrome) (see Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia)
• Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Occult Filariasis) (see Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia)
• Visceral Larva Migrans (see Visceral Larva Migrans)
• Other Infections
  • Brucellosis (see Brucellosis)
  • Coccidioidomycosis (see Coccidioidomycosis)
  • Cryptococcosis (see Cryptococcosis)
  • Echinococcosis (see Echinococcosis)
  • Histoplasmosis (see Histoplasmosis)
  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (see Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
  • Mycobacterium Simiae (see Mycobacterium Simiae)
  • Paragonimiasis (see Paragonimiasis)
  • Schistosomiasis (see Schistosomiasis)
  • Trichinosis (see Trichinosis)
  • Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis)

Bronchiolitis Syndrome

• Bronchiolitis (see Bronchiolitis)
• Bronchiolitis Obliterans (BO) (see Bronchiolitis Obliterans)
• Follicular Bronchiolitis (see Follicular Bronchiolitis)
• Diffuse Panbronchiolitis (see Diffuse Panbronchiolitis)

Other

• Acute Pulmonary Embolism (PE) (see Acute Pulmonary Embolism)
• Air Embolism (see Air Embolism)
• Airway Foreign Body (see Airway Foreign Body)
• Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency (see Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency)
• Anaphylaxis (see Anaphylaxis)
  • Epidemiology
    • Pulmonary Manifestations Occur in 70% of Anaphylaxis Cases
  • Clinical
    • Dry Cough (see Cough)
    • Dyspnea (see Dyspnea)
    • Tachypnea (see Tachypnea)
    • Wheezing (see Wheezing)
• Asthma (see Asthma)
  • Epidemiology
    • Obstruction May Be Intermittent (During Acute Asthma Exacerbation) or Persistent
  • Clinical
    • Cough (see Cough)
    • Dyspnea (see Dyspnea)
    • Tachypnea (see Tachypnea)
    • Wheezing (see Wheezing)
• Beta Thalassemia Major (see Thalassemias)
  • Epidemiology
    • Small Airway Obstructive Airway Defects May Occur (for Unclear Reasons)
  • Diagnosis
    • Pulmonary Function Tests (PFT’s) (see Pulmonary Function Tests): PFT defects correct with transfusion and do not correlate with the iron burden, blood counts, or the degree of hemolysis
• Bronchiectasis (see Bronchiectasis)
• Byssinosis (see Byssinosis)
• Cardiac Asthma (see Congestive Heart Failure)
• Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD) (see Chronic Granulomatous Disease)
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) (see Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
• Combined Pulmonary Fibrosis and Emphysema (see Combined Pulmonary Fibrosis and Emphysema)
• Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID) (see Common Variable Immunodeficiency)
• Cystic Fibrosis (CF) (see Cystic Fibrosis)
• Diffuse Idiopathic Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Cell Hyperplasia (DIPNECH) (see Diffuse Idiopathic Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Cell Hyperplasia)
• Fabry Disease (see Fabry Disease)
• Foreign Body Granulomatosis (see Foreign Body Granulomatosis)
• Hypocalcemia (see Hypocalcemia)
• Isolated IgA Deficiency (see Isolated IgA Deficiency)
• Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (see Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis)
  • Pulmonary Function Tests (PFT’s) (see Pulmonary Function Tests)
    • Earlier Nodular Disease: Normal PFT’s or Restrictive PFT’s with Decreased DLCO
    • Later Cystic Disease: Obstruction (with Possible Bronchodilator Responsiveness) and Hyperinflation
• Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) (see Lymphangioleiomyomatosis)
  • Pulmonary Function Tests (PFT’s) (see Pulmonary Function Tests)
    • Normal: 57% of cases
    • Obstructive Pattern (see Obstructive Lung Disease): 34% of cases
    • Mixed Pattern: 9% of cases
    • Bronchodilator Responsiveness (β2 Agonists or Muscarinic Antagonists): 30% of cases (those with bronchodilator responsiveness have a lower baseline FEV1)
    • Hyperinflation with Increased TLC: common
    • Gas Trapping with Increased RV and RV/TLC Ratio: common
    • Decreased DLCO (Although May Be Increased During Episodes of Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage)
• Marfan Syndrome (see Marfan Syndrome)
• Microscopic Polyangiitis (see Microscopic Polyangiitis)
• Mineral Dust Airway Disease
• Occupational Asthma (see Asthma-Occupational)
• Post-Infection Obstructive Airways Disease
• Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia (see Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)
• Reactive Airway Dysfunction Syndrome (RADS) (see Reactive Airway Dysfunction Syndrome)
• Selective IgG Subclass Deficiency (see Selective IgG Subclass Deficiency)
• Sjogren’s Syndrome (see Sjogrens Syndrome)
• Swyer-James-Macleod Syndrome (see Swyer-James-Macleod Syndrome)
• Tuberous Sclerosis (see Tuberous Sclerosis)
  • Pulmonary Function Tests (PFT’s) (see Pulmonary Function Tests): Obstruction with Decreased DLCO and Preserved Lung Volumes

Pulmonary Manifestations

• Cough (see Cough)
  • Epidemiology
    • Common
• Dyspnea (see Dyspnea)
  • Epidemiology
    • Common
• Wheezing (see Wheezing)
  • Epidemiology
    • Common