Etiology
Obstructive Lung Disease (see Obstructive Lung Disease, [[Obstructive Lung Disease]])
Tracheobronchial Central Airway Obstruction (see Central Airway Obstruction, [[Central Airway Obstruction]])
- Tracheobronchial Infection
- Tracheobronchial Neoplasm
- Primary Tracheobronchial Tumor
- Acinar Cell Carcinoma (see Acinar Cell Carcinoma, [[Acinar Cell Carcinoma]])
- Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma (see Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma, [[Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma]])
- Bronchial Adenoma (see Bronchial Adenoma, [[Bronchial Adenoma]])
- Bronchial Cystadenoma (see Bronchial Cystadenoma, [[Bronchial Cystadenoma]])
- Bronchial Carcinoid (see Bronchial Carcinoid, [[Bronchial Carcinoid]])
- Carcinosarcoma (see Carcinosarcoma, [[Carcinosarcoma]])
- Chemodectoma (see Chemodectoma, [[Chemodectoma]])
- Chondroma (see Chondroma, [[Chondroma]])
- Epithelial-Myoepithelial Carcinoma (see Epithelial-Myoepithelial Carcinoma, [[Epithelial-Myoepithelial Carcinoma]])
- Fibroma (see Fibroma, [[Fibroma]])
- Fibrous Histiocytoma or Xanthoma (see Fibrous Histiocytoma or Xanthoma, [[Fibrous Histiocytoma or Xanthoma]])
- Glomus Tumor (see Glomus Tumor, [[Glomus Tumor]])
- Granular Cell Myoblastoma (see Granular Cell Myoblastoma, [[Granular Cell Myoblastoma]])
- Hamartoma (see Hamartoma, [[Hamartoma]])
- Inflammatory Tracheobronchial Papilloma (see Inflammatory Tracheobronchial Papilloma, [[Inflammatory Tracheobronchial Papilloma]])
- Leiomyoma (see Leiomyoma, [[Leiomyoma]])
- Lipoma (see Lipoma, [[Lipoma]])
- Lung Cancer (see Lung Cancer, [[Lung Cancer]]): common etiology
- Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis (see Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis, [[Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis]])
- Malignant Myoepithelioma (see Malignant Myoepithelioma, [[Malignant Myoepithelioma]])
- Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma (see Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma, [[Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma]])
- Mucoid Pseudotumor (see Mucoid Pseudotumor, [[Mucoid Pseudotumor]])
- Multiple Laryngeal Papillomatosis (see Multiple Laryngeal Papillomatosis, [[Multiple Laryngeal Papillomatosis]])
- Myxoma (see Myxoma, [[Myxoma]])
- Neurofibroma (see Neurofibroma, [[Neurofibroma]])
- Oncocytic Carcinoma
- Papillary Cystadenocarcinoma
- Plasma Cell Granuloma (see Plasma Cell Granuloma, [[Plasma Cell Granuloma]])
- Primary Pulmonary Hodgkin’s Disease (see Primary Pulmonary Hodgkins Disease, [[Primary Pulmonary Hodgkins Disease]])
- Primary Pulmonary Lymphoma (see Primary Pulmonary Lymphoma, [[Primary Pulmonary Lymphoma]])
- Primary Pulmonary Melanoma (see Primary Pulmonary Melanoma, [[Primary Pulmonary Melanoma]])
- Primary Pulmonary Sarcoma (see Primary Pulmonary Sarcoma, [[Primary Pulmonary Sarcoma]])
- Sebaceous Carcinoma (see Sebaceous Carcinoma, [[Sebaceous Carcinoma]])
- Solitary Tracheobronchial Papilloma (see Solitary Tracheobronchial Papilloma, [[Solitary Tracheobronchial Papilloma]])
- Tracheal Chondrosarcoma (see Chondrosarcoma, [[Chondrosarcoma]])
- Tracheal Squamous Cell Cancer (see Tracheal Squamous Cell Cancer, [[Tracheal Squamous Cell Cancer]])
- Endobronchial Metastases (see also Lung Metastases-Endobronchial, [[Lung Metastases-Endobronchial]])
- Breast Cancer (see Breast Cancer, [[Breast Cancer]])
- Cervical Cancer (see Cervical Cancer, [[Cervical Cancer]])
- Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) (see Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia, [[Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia]])
- Colorectal Cancer (see Colorectal Cancer, [[Colorectal Cancer]])
- Endometrioma (see Endometrioma, [[Endometrioma]])
- Esophageal Cancer (see Esophageal Cancer, [[Esophageal Cancer]])
- Germ Cell Tumor (see Germ Cell Tumor, [[Germ Cell Tumor]])
- Head and Neck Cancer (see Head and Neck Cancer, [[Head and Neck Cancer]])
- Hodgkin’s Disease (see Hodgkins Disease, [[Hodgkins Disease]])
- Kaposi Sarcoma (see Kaposi Sarcoma, [[Kaposi Sarcoma]])
- Lymphoma (see Lymphoma, [[Lymphoma]])
- Melanoma (see Melanoma, [[Melanoma]])
- Ovarian Cancer (see Ovarian Cancer, [[Ovarian Cancer]])
- Plasmacytoma (see Multiple Myeloma, [[Multiple Myeloma]])
- Renal Cell Cancer (see Renal Cancer, [[Renal Cancer]])
- Sarcoma
- Testicular Cancer (see Testicular Cancer, [[Testicular Cancer]])
- Thymic Carcinoma (see Thymoma, [[Thymoma]])
- Thyroid Cancer (see Thyroid Cancer, [[Thyroid Cancer]])
- Urothelial Cell Carcinoma (Transitional Cell Carcinoma) (see Urothelial Cell Carcinoma, [[Urothelial Cell Carcinoma]])
- Extrinsic Tracheobronchial Compression
- Enlarged Pulmonary Artery
- Tetralogy of Fallot (see Tetralogy of Fallot, [[Tetralogy of Fallot]])
- Transposition of Great Vessles with Ventricular Septal Defect
- Granulomatous Mediastinitis and Fibrosing Mediastinitis (see Granulomatous Mediastinitis and Fibrosing Mediastinitis, [[Granulomatous Mediastinitis and Fibrosing Mediastinitis]])
- Mediastinal Mass (see Mediastinal Mass, [[Mediastinal Mass]]): extrinsic compression of tracheobronchial airways
- Bulky Mediastinal or Peribronchial Lymphadenopathy
- Cancer
- Hodgkin’s Disease (see Hodgkin’s Disease, [[Hodgkins Disease]])
- Lymphoma (see Lymphoma, [[Lymphoma]])
- Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis, [[Tuberculosis]]): involvement of mediastinal nodes may compress RML bronchus
- Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis, [[Sarcoidosis]])
- Mediastinal Tumor
- Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm (TAA) (see Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm, [[Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm]]): extrinsic compression of tracheobronchial airways
- Thyroid Cancer/Thyromegaly/Goiter (see Goiter, [[Goiter]] and Thyroid Cancer, [[Thyroid Cancer]])
- Other Tracheobronchial Obstructive Process
- Airway Foreign Body (see Airway Foreign Body, [[Airway Foreign Body]])
- Blood Clot
- Bronchial Stenosis (see Bronchial Stenosis, [[Bronchial Stenosis]])
- Bronchocentric Granulomatosis (see Bronchocentric Granulomatosis, [[Bronchocentric Granulomatosis]])
- Broncholithiasis (see Broncholithiasis, [[Broncholithiasis]])
- Bronchopulmonary Amyloidosis (see Amyloidosis, [[Amyloidosis]])
- Goiter
- Granulation Tissue
- Airway Foreign Body
- Airway Stent
- Endotracheal Tube
- Surgical Airway Anastomosis (see Lung Transplant, [[Lung Transplant]])
- Tracheostomy Tube (see Tracheostomy, [[Tracheostomy]])
- Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (Wegener’s Granulomatosis) (see Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis, [[Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis]])
- Hunter’s Syndrome
- Hurler’s Syndrome
- Mucous Plug (see Mucous Plug, [[Mucous Plug]])
- Mucoid Impaction (see Mucoid Impaction, [[Mucoid Impaction]])
- Post-Extubation Tracheal Edema
- Post-Pneumonectomy Syndrome (see Post-Pneumonectomy Syndrome, [[Post-Pneumonectomy Syndrome]])
- Post-Radiation Therapy (see Radiation Therapy, [[Radiation Therapy]])
- Relapsing Polychondritis (see Relapsing Polychondritis, [[Relapsing Polychondritis]])
- Saber Sheath Trachea (see Saber Sheath Trachea, [[Saber Sheath Trachea]])
- Smoke Inhalation (see Smoke Inhalation, [[Smoke Inhalation]])
- Toxic Fume Airway Injury
- Tracheal Cyst (see Tracheal Cyst, [[Tracheal Cyst]])
- Tracheal Stenosis (see Tracheal Stenosis, [[Tracheal Stenosis]])
- Tracheal Trauma
- Tracheobronchial Foreign Body (see Airway Foreign Body, [[Airway Foreign Body]])
- Tracheobronchial Fracture (see Tracheobronchial Fracture, [[Tracheobronchial Fracture]])
- Tracheoesophageal Fistula (see Tracheoesophageal Fistula, [[Tracheoesophageal Fistula]])
- Tracheobronchomalacia (see Tracheobronchomalacia, [[Tracheobronchomalacia]])
- Tracheobronchial Web
- Tracheobronchopathia Osteochondroplastica (see Tracheobronchopathia Osteochondroplastica, [[Tracheobronchopathia Osteochondroplastica]])
Other Airway Obstruction
- Infection
- Drug
- Abacavir Hypersensitivity Reaction (see Abacavir, [[Abacavir]])
- Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors (see Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors, [[Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors]])
- Aclidinium (Tudorza Pressair) (see Aclidinium, [[Aclidinium]])
- Adenosine (see Adenosine, [[Adenosine]])
- Benzylisoquinolinium Neuromuscular Junction Antagonists (see Neuromuscular Junction Antagonists, [[Neuromuscular Junction Antagonists]]): mediated via histamine release
- Alcuronium
- Atracurium (Tracrium) (see Atracurium, [[Atracurium]])
- Cisatracurium (see Cisatracurium, [[Cisatracurium]])
- Doxacurium (see Doxacurium, [[Doxacurium]])
- Mivacurium (see Mivacurium, [[Mivacurium]])
- Tubocurarine
- Beta Blockers (see β-Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists, [[β-Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists]])
- Bronchodilator Agents Which Have Been Associated with Paradoxical Bronchospasm
- Cetuximab (Erbitux) (see Cetuximab, [[Cetuximab]])
- Cytokine Release Syndrome (see Cytokine Release Syndrome, [[Cytokine Release Syndrome]]): occurs with the administration of specific monoclonal antibodies
- Alemtuzumab (Campath, MabCampath, Campath-1H, Lemtrada) (see Alemtuzumab, [[Alemtuzumab]])
- Anti-Thymocyte Globulin (ATG) (see Anti-Thymocyte Globulin, [[Anti-Thymocyte Globulin]])
- Lenalidomide (Revlimid) (see Lenalidomide, [[Lenalidomide]])
- Muromonab-CD3 (Orthoclone OKT3) (see Muromonab-CD3, [[Muromonab-CD3]])
- Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin, Oxaliplatin Medac) (see Oxaliplatin, [[Oxaliplatin]])
- Rituximab (Rituxan) (see Anti-CD20 Therapy, [[Anti-CD20 Therapy]])
- Gemcitabine (see Gemcitabine, [[Gemcitabine]])
- Interferon-Alpha (see Interferon, [[Interferon]])
- Paclitaxel (see Paclitaxel, [[Paclitaxel]])
- Mitomycin C (see Mitomycin, [[Mitomycin]])
- N-Acetylcysteine (Mucomyst, Acetadote, Fluimucil, Parvolex) (see N-Acetylcysteine, [[N-Acetylcysteine)
- Nitrofurantoin (see Nitrofurantoin, [[Nitrofurantoin]])
- Ocrelizumab (Ocrevus) (see Ocrelizumab, [[Ocrelizumab]])
- Epidemiology: bronchospasm may occur as a feature of infusion reaction
- Opiates (see Opiates, [[Opiates]])
- Paclitaxel (Taxol) (see Paclitaxel, [[Paclitaxel]])
- Panitumumab (Vectibix) (see Panitumumab, [[Panitumumab]])
- Rasburicase (Elitek) (see Rasburicase, [[Rasburicase]])
- Ribavirin (see Ribavirin, [[Ribavirin]])
- Teniposide (Vumon, VM-26) (see Teniposide, [[Teniposide]])
- Trastuzumab (Herceptin) (see Trastuzumab, [[Trastuzumab]])
- Vinblastine (see Vinblastine, [[Vinblastine]])
- Zanamivir (Relenza) (see Zanamivir, [[Zanamivir]])
- Toxin
- Acetic Acid Inhalation (see Acetic Acid, [[Acetic Acid]])
- Ammonia Inhalation (see Ammonia, [[Ammonia]])
- Bromine Inhalation/Methyl Bromide Inhalation (see Bromine-Methyl Bromide, [[Bromine-Methyl Bromide]])
- Chlorine Gas/Aerosol Inhalation (see Chlorine, [[Chlorine]])
- Chloropicrin Gas Inhalation (see Chloropicrin Gas, [[Chloropicrin Gas]])
- Cholinergic Intoxication (see Cholinergic Intoxication, [[Cholinergic Intoxication]])
- Cigua Toxin Poisoning (see Cigua Toxin Poisoning, [[Cigua Toxin Poisoning]])
- Organophosphate/Carbamate Intoxication (see Organophosphates-Carbamates, [[Organophosphates-Carbamates]])
- Scorpion Sting (see Scorpion Sting, [[Scorpion Sting]])
- Associated Scorpion Species
- Centuroides Exilicauda (Sculpuratus)
- Centuroides Suffusus
- Toxic Mushrooms (see Toxic Mushrooms, [[Toxic Mushrooms]])
- Associated Mushrooms
- Boletus Calopus
- Clitocybe Dealbata
- Clitocybe Illudens
- Inocybe Fastigiata
- Chromic Acid Inhalation (see Chromic Acid, [[Chromic Acid]])
- Diborane Gas Inhalation (see Diborane Gas, [[Diborane Gas]])
- Dinitrogen Tetroxide Inhalation (see Dinitrogen Tetroxide, [[Dinitrogen Tetroxide]])
- Hydrofluoric Acid Inhalation (see Hydrofluoric Acid, [[Hydrofluoric Acid]])
- Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Inhalation (see Hydrogen Sulfide Gas, [[Hydrogen Sulfide Gas]])
- Metal Fume Fever (see Metal Fume Fever, [[Metal Fume Fever]])
- Methamphetamine (see Methamphetamine, [[Methamphetamine]])
- Methyl Isocyanate Inhalation (see Methyl Isocyanate, [[Methyl Isocyanate]])
- Methyl Isothiocyanate Inhalation (see Methyl Isothiocyanate, [[Methyl Isothiocyanate]])
- Neurotoxic Shellfish Inhalation (see Neurotoxic Shellfish, [[Neurotoxic Shellfish]])
- Nitric Acid Inhalation (see Nitric Acid, [[Nitric Acid]])
- Nitrogen Dioxide Inhalation (see Nitrogen Dioxide, [[Nitrogen Dioxide]])
- Ozone Inhalation (see Ozone, [[Ozone]])
- Phosgene Gas Inhalation (see Phosgene Gas, [[Phosgene Gas]])
- Phosphine Gas Inhalation (see Phosphine Gas, [[Phosphine Gas]])
- Polymer Fume Fever (see Polymer Fume Fever, [[Polymer Fume Fever]])
- Smoke Inhalation (see Smoke Inhalation, [[Smoke Inhalation]])
- Sulfur Dioxide Inhalation (see Sulfur Dioxide, [[Sulfur Dioxide]])
- Sulfuric Acid Inhalation (see Sulfuric Acid, [[Sulfuric Acid]])
- Sulfur Mustard Gas Inhalation (see Sulfur Mustard Gas, [[Sulfur Mustard Gas]])
- Tear Gas Inhalation (see Tear Gas, [[Tear Gas]])
- VX Nerve Agent (see VX Nerve Agent, [[VX Nerve Agent]])
- Zinc Chloride Gas Inhalation (Smoke Bomb Exposure) (see Zinc Chloride Gas, [[Zinc Chloride Gas]])
- Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia (PIE) Syndrome (see Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia, [[Pulmonary Infiltrates with Eosinophilia]])
- Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia (see Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia, [[Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia]])
- Acute Lung Transplant Rejection (Acute Cellular Lung Transplant Rejection) (see Acute Lung Transplant Rejection, [[Acute Lung Transplant Rejection]])
- Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA) (see Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis, [[Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis]])
- Allergic Bronchopulmonary Candidiasis (see Candida, [[Candida]])
- Bronchocentric Granulomatosis (see Bronchocentric Granulomatosis, [[Bronchocentric Granulomatosis]])
- Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia (see Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia, [[Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia]])
- Dirofilariasis (see Dirofilariasis, [[Dirofilariasis]])
- Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia (see Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia, [[Drug-Induced Pulmonary Eosinophilia]])
- Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome (see Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome, [[Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome]])
- Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (EGPA, Churg-Strauss Syndrome, Allergic Angiitis and Granulomatosis) (see Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis, [[Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis]])
- Hypereosinophilic Syndrome (see Hypereosinophilic Syndrome, [[Hypereosinophilic Syndrome]])
- Sarcoidosis (see Sarcoidosis, [[Sarcoidosis]])
- Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Loffler’s Syndrome) (see Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia, [[Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia]])
- Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Occult Filariasis) (see Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia, [[Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia]])
- Visceral Larva Migrans (see Visceral Larva Migrans, [[Visceral Larva Migrans]])
- Other Infections
- Brucellosis (see Brucellosis, [[Brucellosis]])
- Coccidioidomycosis (see Coccidioidomycosis, [[Coccidioidomycosis]])
- Cryptococcosis (see Cryptococcosis, [[Cryptococcosis]])
- Echinococcosis (see Echinococcosis, [[Echinococcosis]])
- Histoplasmosis (see Histoplasmosis, [[Histoplasmosis]])
- Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (see Human Immunodeficiency Virus, [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]])
- Mycobacterium Simiae (see Mycobacterium Simiae, [[Mycobacterium Simiae]])
- Paragonimiasis (see Paragonimiasis, [[Paragonimiasis]])
- Schistosomiasis (see Schistosomiasis, [[Schistosomiasis]])
- Trichinosis (see Trichinosis, [[Trichinosis]])
- Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis, [[Tuberculosis]])
- Bronchiolitis Syndrome
- Other
- Acute Pulmonary Embolism (see Acute Pulmonary Embolism, [[Acute Pulmonary Embolism]])
- Air Embolism (see Air Embolism, [[Air Embolism]])
- Airway Foreign Body (see Airway Foreign Body, [[Airway Foreign Body]])
- Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency (see Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency, [[Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency]])
- Anaphylaxis (see Anaphylaxis, [[Anaphylaxis]])
- Asthma (see Asthma, [[Asthma]])
- Beta Thalassemia Major (see Thalassemias, [[Thalassemias]])
- Bronchiectasis (see Bronchiectasis, [[Bronchiectasis]])
- Byssinosis (see Byssinosis, [[Byssinosis]])
- Cardiac Asthma (see Congestive Heart Failure, [[Congestive Heart Failure]])
- Cholinergic Intoxication (see Cholinergic Intoxication, [[Cholinergic Intoxication]])
- Chronic Berylliosis (see Beryllium, [[Beryllium]])
- Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD) (see Chronic Granulomatous Disease, [[Chronic Granulomatous Disease]])
- Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) (see Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, [[Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease]])
- Combined Pulmonary Fibrosis and Emphysema (see Combined Pulmonary Fibrosis and Emphysema, [[Combined Pulmonary Fibrosis and Emphysema]])
- Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID) (see Common Variable Immunodeficiency, [[Common Variable Immunodeficiency]])
- Cystic Fibrosis (CF) (see Cystic Fibrosis, [[Cystic Fibrosis]])
- Diffuse Idiopathic Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Cell Hyperplasia (DIPNECH) (see Diffuse Idiopathic Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Cell Hyperplasia, [[Diffuse Idiopathic Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Cell Hyperplasia]])
- Fabry Disease (see Fabry Disease, [[Fabry Disease]])
- Foreign Body Granulomatosis (see Foreign Body Granulomatosis, [[Foreign Body Granulomatosis]])
- Hypocalcemia (see Hypocalcemia, [[Hypocalcemia]])
- Isolated IgA Deficiency (see Isolated IgA Deficiency, [[Isolated IgA Deficiency]])
- Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (see Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis, [[Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis]])
- Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) (see Lymphangioleiomyomatosis, [[Lymphangioleiomyomatosis]])
- Marfan Syndrome (see Marfan Syndrome, [[Marfan Syndrome]])
- Microscopic Polyangiitis (see Microscopic Polyangiitis, [[Microscopic Polyangiitis]])
- Mineral Dust Airway Disease
- Occupational Asthma (see Asthma-Occupational, [[Asthma-Occupational]])
- Post-Infection Obstructive Airways Disease
- Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia (see Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia, [[Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia]])
- Reactive Airway Dysfunction Syndrome (RADS) (see Reactive Airway Dysfunction Syndrome, [[Reactive Airway Dysfunction Syndrome]])
- Selective IgG Subclass Deficiency (see Selective IgG Subclass Deficiency, [[Selective IgG Subclass Deficiency]])
- Sjogren’s Syndrome (see Sjogrens Syndrome, [[Sjogrens Syndrome]])
- Swyer-James-Macleod Syndrome (see Swyer-James-Macleod Syndrome, [[Swyer-James-Macleod Syndrome]])
- Tuberous Sclerosis (see Tuberous Sclerosis, [[Tuberous Sclerosis]])
References
- The functional basis of pulmonary sounds. Chest. 1978;73(3):399 [MEDLINE]
- Diagnosis of bronchial asthma by clinical evaluation. An unreliable method. Chest. 1983;84(1):42 [MEDLINE]
- Lung sounds. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984;130(4):663 [MEDLINE]
- Fundamentals of lung auscultation. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(8):744 [MEDLINE]